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<p>THE U.S. NAVY SEAL SURVIVAL</p><p>HANDBOOK</p><p>LEARN THE SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES AND</p><p>STRATEGIES OF AMERICA’S</p><p>ELITE WARRIORS</p><p>Don Mann and Ralph Pezzullo</p><p>Skyhorse Publishing</p><p>2</p><p>Copyright © 2012 by Don Mann and Ralph Pezzullo</p><p>All Rights Reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced</p><p>in any manner without the express written consent of the</p><p>publisher, except in the case of brief excerpts in critical</p><p>reviews or articles. All inquiries should be addressed to</p><p>Skyhorse Publishing, 307 West 36th Street, 11th Floor, New</p><p>York, NY 10018.</p><p>All statements of fact, opinion, or analysis expressed are</p><p>those of the author and do not reflect the official positions or</p><p>views of the U.S. Government. Nothing in the contents should</p><p>be construed as asserting or implying U.S. Government</p><p>authentication of information or endorsement of the author’s</p><p>view. This material has been reviewed by the U.S.</p><p>Government and the U.S. Military to prevent the disclosure of</p><p>classified information.</p><p>Skyhorse Publishing books may be purchased in bulk at</p><p>special discounts for sales promotion, corporate gifts,</p><p>fund-raising, or educational purposes. Special editions can</p><p>also be created to specifications. For details, contact the</p><p>Special Sales Department, Skyhorse Publishing, 307 West</p><p>36th Street, 11th Floor, New York, NY 10018 or</p><p>info@skyhorsepublishing.com.</p><p>3</p><p>d:\control\pi\scripts\working\tmp\1620873931.epub\ops\xhtml\mailto:info@skyhorsepublishing.com</p><p>Skyhorse® and Skyhorse Publishing® are registered</p><p>trademarks of Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.®, a Delaware</p><p>corporation.</p><p>Visit our website at www.skyhorsepublishing.com.</p><p>10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1</p><p>Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is</p><p>available on file.</p><p>ISBN: 978-1-61608-580-3</p><p>Photo research by Erika W. Hokanson of</p><p>RefreshMediaResources.com</p><p>Printed in China</p><p>“Never Get Lost AGAIN! As a former Navy SEAL, not only</p><p>did I enjoy Don Mann’s U.S. Navy SEAL Survival Handbook,</p><p>4</p><p>http://www.skyhorsepublishing.com</p><p>but learned several things as well. This book is written by a</p><p>career Navy SEAL combat medic and life long adventure</p><p>racer. He knows more about surviving in potentially</p><p>dangerous situations/nature than anyone I personally know. I</p><p>look forward to keeping this book readily available—just in</p><p>case!”</p><p>—by Stew Smith, Navy SEAL Fitness Author</p><p>“Don has certainly walked the walk in his years serving in the</p><p>SEAL teams. Having gone through military survival training</p><p>(land/water survival, SAR, SERE, etc.) and non-military</p><p>(winter mountaineering) I can appreciate the depth of</p><p>knowledge within each section. Surviving life threatening</p><p>situations requires something unique for each individual. Don</p><p>articulates a holistic view to help educate and prepare the</p><p>reader for various scenarios. This publication is a must read</p><p>for anyone looking to hone their survival skills.”</p><p>—by Brian Dickinson, ex-USN CSAR Swimmer, Everest</p><p>Summiteer/Survivor</p><p>“The Navy SEAL Survival Handbook is a comprehensive</p><p>guide from an expert with the experience to back it up! The</p><p>Navy Seal Survival Handbook is a terrific, one stop source for</p><p>your survival needs.”</p><p>—by Randy Spivey, CEO and Founder, Center for</p><p>Personal Protection and Safety</p><p>“I’ve been on multiple operational deployments with Don and</p><p>taken a few recreational adventure trips with him. I assure</p><p>you that Don knows about what he has written in The Navy</p><p>5</p><p>SEAL Survival Handbook. I don’t mean theory or practicing</p><p>survival techniques in protected environment where a</p><p>time-out can be called and someone will come and provide a</p><p>little assistance. Don has applied most of the things he</p><p>describes in the real-world and in risky situations. Heck, he’s</p><p>probably done all of this stuff but couldn’t share it because of</p><p>the sensitive nature of his missions! While Don describes</p><p>skills that are critical to survival, what you really gain from</p><p>reading this handbook is a sense of the attitude required to be</p><p>successful in the harsh environments in which America’s</p><p>secret warriors thrive.”</p><p>—by John Wright, US Air Force and DoD SERE Trainer,</p><p>Multiple Deployments in Support of the Global War on</p><p>Terror</p><p>“The Navy SEAL Survival Handbook is essential reading for</p><p>any adventure racer, climber, explorer, military personnel or</p><p>outdoors person; ensure you have a copy of this in your</p><p>kit-bag! Everything from what to include and how to prepare</p><p>your emergency kit to living off the land, from essential</p><p>shelter building to personal administration and from the</p><p>effects of weather to celestial and obscure navigation can be</p><p>found in this hand-book.</p><p>I know this is one manual I will be using for the Hellweek</p><p>PT™ Baalsrud Trail Challenge to the Arctic in 2013.”</p><p>—by (Naval) Lt. Seán Ó Cearrúlláin (Rtd.), Hellweek</p><p>PT™ Founder</p><p>“The Navy SEAL Survival Handbook has all the lessons,</p><p>reasons why and also the why not’s, of how to survive when</p><p>6</p><p>“it” hits the fan. Everyone from Back Country to the Urban</p><p>folks can benefit from all the information. You just never</p><p>know and like it has been said “knowledge is power”. The</p><p>lessons in this book can mean the difference between</p><p>surviving and being home with those you love or not. Will</p><p>you be part of the solution or live a life time of regret? I</p><p>started reading it, but wound up studying it!”</p><p>—by Jim Kelleher, Survivalist</p><p>“The Navy SEAL Survival Handbook brought back some</p><p>really wild and vivid memories of courses I’d been through in</p><p>the military. It really captured what it was like to be there and</p><p>how each evolution unfolded. Special Operation Forces</p><p>(SOF) guys are pretty special just as the studies show. This</p><p>Survival Handbook tells the public exactly how they are able</p><p>to do survive in the wilderness.”</p><p>—by LTC Blain Reeves, US Army</p><p>“Having been trained by some of the most highly regarded</p><p>survival experts in the US, I can say definitively that no one</p><p>has more experience or knowledge on the topic of mountain,</p><p>jungle, desert, sea or urban survival than Don Mann. Don’s</p><p>survival techniques along with his philosophy on combat</p><p>mindset have served me well in real world survival situations</p><p>and life in general. The Navy SEAL Survival Handbook</p><p>should be mandatory reading for anyone who spends time in</p><p>the wilderness.”</p><p>—by Dr. Stephen M. Erle, Director SEAL Training</p><p>Adventures</p><p>7</p><p>“A veritable how-to guide, The Navy Seal Survival Handbook</p><p>is an absolute must have for every outdoor enthusiast,</p><p>adventurer or Armed Forces member. This book is packed</p><p>with a ton of useful information on wilderness survival</p><p>techniques. A retired member of the elite U.S. Navy SEALs,</p><p>Don Mann shares his acumen and experiences as an expert in</p><p>the field.”</p><p>—by Rick Sheremeta, Outdoor Photographer and Author</p><p>“Navy SEAL, Don Mann, comes through again with another</p><p>insightful and inspiring book. His knowledge of survival is</p><p>apparent from the get go in The Navy SEAL Survival</p><p>Handbook. The psychological angle intrigued me the most</p><p>and was an amazing view of what SEALs sacrifice IN</p><p>TRAINING, let alone what happens in combat situations. I</p><p>gained a great deal of insight into the world of survival as</p><p>well as deepened my respect for the Navy SEALs. Frankly if I</p><p>was in a survival situation, I would want Don Mann there</p><p>with me. After reading his book I at least feel like I am much</p><p>better prepared. If you are a fan of survival, get this book. If</p><p>you are intrigued by the Navy SEALs, get this book. Just</p><p>GET THIS BOOK!”</p><p>—by Matthew Fox, Expedition competitor</p><p>“I found the chapters on Survival Mindset and Basic Survival</p><p>Tips to be especially beneficial. These two chapters alone are</p><p>a vital read for all outdoors recreationalists. I highly endorse</p><p>this book as the definitive guide on wilderness survival and</p><p>recommend it strongly as essential reading for military,</p><p>civilian, and search and rescue specialists.”</p><p>8</p><p>—by Jim C. Blount, retired CIA Senior Instructor and the</p><p>author of Stay Alert, Stay Alive, A Guide to</p><p>Counterterrorism for Everyday Life</p><p>“The Navy SEAL Survival Handbook is much more than a</p><p>basic “Survival 101” handbook. Having retired from the</p><p>Army, after a twenty-four year career, I read from a</p><p>perspective of</p><p>resilience. However, there are also too many</p><p>accounts of individuals relatively immobilized by a survival</p><p>experience because they lacked adequate resilience. These</p><p>individuals sat helplessly until rescued or released. In some</p><p>unfortunate cases, they succumbed before rescue or release</p><p>could be effected. In a significant number of these cases, it</p><p>has been determined individuals possessed adequate means to</p><p>endure and sustain life but lost “the will to survive” and</p><p>perished. How do we account for these differences? Why do</p><p>some individuals possess the necessary resilience to survive</p><p>and others do not?</p><p>82</p><p>Norway - Navy Special Warfare reserve component</p><p>sailors from SEAL team 18 maintain security during a</p><p>direct action mission with the German Kommando</p><p>Spezialkrafte (KSK) during cold response. cold response</p><p>is a Norwegian exercise open to all NATO nations for</p><p>winter warfare and joint coalition training.</p><p>83</p><p>Virginia Beach, Va—A Navy SEAL platoon performs a</p><p>land warfare exercise during a capabilities demonstration</p><p>at Joint Expeditionary Base Little Creek, Va. The Naval</p><p>Special Warfare community event was part of the 41st</p><p>UDT/SEAL East Coast reunion celebration.</p><p>This contradiction provokes several critical questions, which I</p><p>will address. The answers lead to a proven, scientific solution</p><p>to this paradox, and a challenge to those engaged in the</p><p>profession of survival and resistance training. I will use</p><p>84</p><p>captivity as the survival experience on which to focus this</p><p>examination.</p><p>What reactions do captives typically experience?</p><p>Individuals who are thrust into captivity share universal</p><p>reactions which include initial startle or panic, disbelief,</p><p>denial of the reality of the situation, and a deep sense of</p><p>vulnerability and helplessness. As the experience progresses</p><p>from moments, to hours, and then days, captives experience</p><p>anger and depression, asking themselves the pervasive</p><p>question—“why me?” They often engage in bargaining,</p><p>thinking to themselves, “If I get out of here, I will be a better</p><p>person,” or “I will dedicate my life to a noble cause,” etc. As</p><p>time wears on, their self-esteem erodes as the captive</p><p>struggles with a devastating sense of loss of control. In</p><p>prolonged captivity, usually more than six months,</p><p>resignation and acceptance develop as anger and depression</p><p>become less extreme. The captive attempts to structure life</p><p>into surviving one day at a time. The magnitude of reactions</p><p>captives experience is influenced by: (1) culture of the captor,</p><p>(2) duration of captivity, (3) harshness of captivity, (4)</p><p>support received from others if held with other captives, (5)</p><p>innate predispositions, (6) commitment to the ideology or task</p><p>which placed them in jeopardy initially, (7) maturity, (8)</p><p>personal value systems, and (9) satisfaction with family</p><p>relations during the precapture period. As these predictable</p><p>reactions unfold, captives are urgently drawing upon their</p><p>individual resources to meet this survival threat.</p><p>In what coping behaviors do most captives engage?</p><p>Information from numerous captivity debriefs and firsthand</p><p>accounts from survivors identify the most commonly used</p><p>coping behaviors. Immediately upon captivity, individuals</p><p>85</p><p>strive to counteract the shock and disbelief they are</p><p>experiencing by reassuring themselves the experience will</p><p>end soon. They disassociate themselves from their condition</p><p>by sleeping or daydreaming. Most individuals engage in</p><p>“magical thinking” related to rescues. They imagine some</p><p>miraculous rescue occurring and “it all being over.” They</p><p>often fantasize their captors will realize it was all a mistake</p><p>and release them. As hours turn into days, survivors work to</p><p>establish some sense of control and predictability. They</p><p>engage in communication efforts with other captives,</p><p>establish physical fitness routines, and follow cleaning and</p><p>personal hygiene rituals. They rely heavily on religious</p><p>beliefs, prayer, and close family ties. When held together,</p><p>captives develop a strong sense of group. Belonging to a</p><p>pre-captivity group which is the object of their captors’</p><p>exploitation often gives survivors a sense of being part of a</p><p>“righteous” cause.</p><p>In further attempts to establish some control over their</p><p>situation, captives engage in precaptivity life roles.</p><p>Regardless of the degree of modification necessary, they</p><p>think about or do things which remind them of their value as a</p><p>person. They may repeatedly and neatly fold objects as</p><p>perfectly as they can or offer first-aid or consoling</p><p>companionship to other captives. They organize daily</p><p>schedules, mentally construct “dream homes,” and review</p><p>past academic efforts as they strive for a sense of control and</p><p>personal value. Reminiscing about past pleasant activities is</p><p>typical. Most captives learn not to allow this to freely occur</p><p>regarding family and loved ones because of the debilitating</p><p>emotional effects. Rather, they restrict family reminiscences</p><p>to a specific time and duration.</p><p>86</p><p>As survivors struggle to cope with captivity, they must</p><p>constantly deal with waves of apprehension and fear.</p><p>Apprehension and fear feed on a sense of uncontrollability.</p><p>The less effective the captive perceives his coping efforts to</p><p>be, the more the captive senses a loss of control. Captives</p><p>strive to establish control by attempting to model remembered</p><p>and present behavior of others who do not appear</p><p>apprehensive or fearful. They create distractions from the</p><p>dreadful reality of captivity. They try to dispute negative</p><p>thoughts which persistently invade their thinking. The best</p><p>defense in settings which produce apprehension and fear has</p><p>proven to be repeated past experiences with anxiety and</p><p>fear-producing settings similar to the present stressor, which</p><p>were successfully overcome. Unfortunately, captivity is a</p><p>stressor which doesn’t come in gradual doses over time.</p><p>Although coping attempts are quite universal in their initial</p><p>application, captives meet with varying degrees of success in</p><p>applying them. Some individuals become overwhelmed</p><p>almost immediately and show little or no optimism regarding</p><p>their survival options. They seem unable to muster the</p><p>necessary energy to continue coping. Others demonstrate</p><p>initial energy in applying coping behaviors only to have this</p><p>energy rapidly dissipate as survival demands increase. Others</p><p>rebound quickly from their initial capture shock and persist in</p><p>efforts to overcome new difficulties. These individuals</p><p>demonstrate an ability to increase their coping skills and</p><p>confidence over time to a highly resilient level. Research</p><p>indicates almost all captives initially engage in similar coping</p><p>behaviors; however, their resilience in continuing to do so as</p><p>stress increases and novel threats arise varies greatly.</p><p>87</p><p>Given that individuals do not respond with equal</p><p>effectiveness in captivity survival, what accounts for these</p><p>varying degrees of resilience? A seemingly logical</p><p>conclusion is that resilience is inborn, a result of genetic</p><p>endowment. If this were true, those who were born with “the</p><p>resilience gene” would be effective survivors and those</p><p>without it would not. While there is evidence that some</p><p>equally naive individuals do adapt to novel situations more</p><p>quickly and effectively than others, sound scientific research</p><p>shows that resilience is not the sole province of heredity.</p><p>Fortunately, it can be acquired or learned. In order to</p><p>understand how this learning takes place, we must first</p><p>examine some important underlying dynamics. Studies have</p><p>identified three elements which are necessary to produce</p><p>resilience. None of the three alone is sufficient to produce the</p><p>desired result, but when properly combined, they yield</p><p>optimum resilience. The first element is talent. Talent is the</p><p>basic raw material of intelligence and creativity which allows</p><p>the survivor to conceive of and apply coping strategies. An</p><p>average amount of talent is sufficient. The second element is</p><p>desire or motivation. Once individuals recognize they are</p><p>confronted with a survival situation, the desire to avoid or</p><p>escape it is quite spontaneous.</p><p>The third element is optimism.</p><p>Survivors can have the desire to escape or avoid the situation</p><p>and a basic idea of how to approach this, but if they lack</p><p>optimism, their desire and talent alone will not result in the</p><p>confidence and persistence necessary for resilient survival</p><p>behavior. We know individuals possess varying levels of</p><p>optimism and pessimism; still, the degree of optimism or</p><p>pessimism a survivor demonstrates is significantly affected by</p><p>learned behavior.</p><p>88</p><p>In order to understand the essential role optimism plays in</p><p>resilience, it is necessary to contrast it with its opposite—</p><p>pessimism. The prototypical pessimist believes bad events</p><p>will last a long time. The pessimist believes bad events will</p><p>undermine everything one does and are the result of some</p><p>internal fault. Pessimists all have a normal endowment of</p><p>talent and do not like aversive situations any more than</p><p>optimists. However, hundreds of studies show pessimists give</p><p>up easily when confronted with aversive situations which</p><p>demand persistence to overcome. Prototypical optimists, on</p><p>the other hand, believe bad events will be limited to a specific</p><p>time and will affect only the specific situation in which they</p><p>occur. Optimists also do not believe bad events are their fault.</p><p>They view them as the result of external factors. In other</p><p>words, optimists find temporary and specific causes for</p><p>misfortune and do not blame themselves for their occurrence.</p><p>This optimism, along with desire and talent, produces hope,</p><p>confidence, and resilience.</p><p>The key variables in predicting whether a survivor will</p><p>demonstrate optimism or pessimism are control and</p><p>predictability. For the survivor, a sense of control yields</p><p>predictability, which reduces stress, builds confidence, and</p><p>allows the survivor to manage fear and anxiety. In scientific</p><p>terms, we would say a sense of control yields less anticipatory</p><p>arousal to potentially aversive stimuli. If the survivor cannot,</p><p>to a reasonable degree, predict the outcome of the</p><p>circumstances with which confronted, the survivor will</p><p>become more and more pessimistic about a personal ability to</p><p>cope. This pessimism will increase a sense of loss of control</p><p>and undermine the survivor’s ability to contend with the</p><p>situation. As a result, a feeling of helplessness will develop.</p><p>This helplessness, in turn, can become pervasive and</p><p>89</p><p>effectively exclude present and even future coping behaviors</p><p>from occurring.</p><p>This learned helplessness was demonstrated in a wide variety</p><p>of animal studies. One such study was conducted on wild rats</p><p>by Curt Richter at Johns Hopkins University. The rats were</p><p>originally placed in a small metal cage. A sliding door was</p><p>opened and the rat would see a dark opening (actually a black</p><p>opaque bag). The rat would shoot through the opening, with</p><p>retreat immediately cut off. The rat would then be gently</p><p>pushed toward the end of the bag and simply held, through</p><p>the walls of the bag, in the hand of the experimenter. Over</p><p>2,000 rats were held in this way and, despite their fierce and</p><p>aggressive nature, none ever made an attempt to bite the</p><p>experimenter through the bag. Many died simply from this</p><p>restraint. Those that did not were placed in a large glass</p><p>cylinder filled with water and forced to sink or swim. All died</p><p>promptly on immersion in contrast to usual laboratory rats</p><p>under the same circumstances who swam for incredible</p><p>periods until eventually rescued. Electrocardiograph records</p><p>were taken during this second phase and, contrary to the usual</p><p>response of accelerated heart rate due to stress, which is</p><p>consistent with a coping response, rats succumbing promptly</p><p>had an immediate slowing of the heart rate. The implication</p><p>that when fight or flight are not available, hopelessness and</p><p>resignation follow with major psychophysiological responses</p><p>that adversely affect survival. In this experiment, it was found</p><p>that if wild rats were repeatedly held for just a few seconds</p><p>and then released from this state, or if immersed in the</p><p>cylinder of water very briefly and then “rescued,” they</p><p>showed no signs of giving up during later immersion. Instead,</p><p>they continued swimming as long as domestic rats. A</p><p>subsequent study with laboratory rats by John Wittrig and</p><p>90</p><p>colleagues revealed that rats subjected to various kinds of</p><p>stress in early life swam more than twice as long as a control</p><p>group in which no stress was present during the same period</p><p>of time.</p><p>Stennis Space Center, Miss—A Navy SEAL</p><p>communicates with teammates during immediate action</p><p>drills at the John C. Stennis Space Center. The drills are a</p><p>part of the SEALs pre-deployment training. Navy SEALs</p><p>are the maritime component of U.S. Special Operations</p><p>Command and are trained to conduct a variety of</p><p>operations from the sea, air, and land.</p><p>91</p><p>As a result of these and many other studies, experimenters</p><p>concluded that subjects who are permitted to survive an</p><p>overwhelming situation develop an “immunity” to the</p><p>“hopelessness” response. In numerous similar studies</p><p>conducted on human subjects, the same effects occurred.</p><p>Individuals who perceived they were helpless, because no</p><p>amount of effort would effect a solution, ceased to cope. In</p><p>contrast, those who were optimistic in their ability to</p><p>eventually prevail persisted. This research evidence illustrates</p><p>the difference between ineffective and effective resilient</p><p>coping behaviors. When confronted by difficulties, those who</p><p>have learned to be optimistic apply that optimism to their</p><p>talent and desire and, consequently, persist in coping. Those</p><p>who lack adequate experience or preparation, despite their</p><p>talent and desire, are overcome, learn to be helpless, and</p><p>cease coping. This learned helplessness effectively eliminates</p><p>the confidence to persist in the face of adversity.</p><p>How does one acquire optimum survival resilience? There</p><p>are two primary methods for acquiring resilience. First, it can</p><p>be acquired through a process of naturally occurring</p><p>education and graded exposures. I am confident it occurred in</p><p>Sir Ranulph Fiennes’ case. Allow me to extrapolate from Sir</p><p>Ranulph’s writings and describe how I conceive his learning</p><p>occurred. His resilience was the result of an extremely</p><p>thorough and comprehensive training process which occurred</p><p>as a natural evolution of his life’s pursuit of exploration. At</p><p>some early stage in his life, he solidified the commitment to</p><p>pursue exploration as his passion and profession. He read</p><p>accounts of famous explorations. He talked to individuals</p><p>who had participated in these harrowing adventures and</p><p>gained insight from their experiences. He imagined what it</p><p>would be like to experience these same kinds of adventure</p><p>92</p><p>and accomplish similar conquests; he embarked upon initial,</p><p>small-scale explorative forays of his own. These first efforts</p><p>could have been in a local park or wilderness area close by.</p><p>These initial efforts began to build a realistic, but not</p><p>overwhelming, perspective of what exploration would be like,</p><p>as well as the kind of training and equipment he would need.</p><p>He honed his raw talent until it was well suited to his pursuit.</p><p>His desire increased with each new successful conquest. He</p><p>used this experience to begin a critical assessment of the</p><p>magnitude of stresses and challenges he would be capable of</p><p>confronting in the future. With this framework fixed in his</p><p>mind, he embarked on only the most rigorous and demanding</p><p>exploration challenges. He identified the limits of his</p><p>endurance, his strong points, and areas where he needed</p><p>improvement. He learned to distinguish conditions he could</p><p>manipulate and those he could not change. He became</p><p>extremely skillful in preparing for and conducting</p><p>expeditions, confronting these stressful situations with</p><p>optimism, regrouping when plans did not work out as well as</p><p>he had hoped, and using those experiences to further refine</p><p>skills. Eventually he was ready for “the ultimate test.” This</p><p>long sought-after exploration was fraught with the most</p><p>severe of climatic conditions. He encountered extremely</p><p>difficult and often unplanned physical and</p><p>psychological</p><p>obstacles. When these stressors occurred, he rebounded from</p><p>their initial shock, gathered his confidence, and persisted with</p><p>his quest to its eventual hard-won conclusion. Because of his</p><p>desire, talent, careful preparation, confidence, and realistic</p><p>optimism, he was eminently successful. His years of</p><p>meticulous preparation provided him with incredible</p><p>resilience. His optimum survival behavior led to his</p><p>consummate performance on the Pentland South Pole</p><p>Expedition.</p><p>93</p><p>If we return to our original vignette, where I, totally lacking</p><p>Sir Ranulph’s skill and excellent preparation, was to be thrust</p><p>into similar Antarctic conditions, the results would be</p><p>categorically different. I would be completely undone. I</p><p>would have the desire to extricate myself. I have talent and</p><p>some applied skills I could borrow from mountaineering;</p><p>however, no doubt my optimism would fade fast and I would</p><p>feel overwhelmed and helpless. Sir Ranulph met the</p><p>challenge with a lifetime of preparation. For me, it would be</p><p>an unplanned, unpredictable, and staggering survival</p><p>experience.</p><p>Both methods for acquiring resilience have proven to be</p><p>highly effective and systematic; both contain the same</p><p>developmental process. If a survival experience cannot be</p><p>predicted, or if it involves a setting which does not lend itself</p><p>to a natural development of situation-specific immunity, the</p><p>second method is indicated. Where the first method is</p><p>accomplished spontaneously over an extended period of time,</p><p>the second can be implemented at any time, requiring</p><p>relatively little time to complete, but still producing highly</p><p>effective results. The second method is a specialized</p><p>adaptation of stress inoculation training. Stress inoculation</p><p>training is divided into three phases which approximate and</p><p>greatly accelerate the natural development of the first method.</p><p>94</p><p>95</p><p>Special Warfare Combatant uses a red fare to signal an</p><p>aircraft for a personnel recovery mission during a</p><p>training exercise at Marine Corps Auxiliary Landing</p><p>Field Bogue, N.C.</p><p>In the first or Conceptualization Phase, individuals develop a</p><p>comprehensive understanding and reliable mental picture of</p><p>the situation for which they are preparing. This is done by</p><p>studying interviews and narrative accounts. Individuals are</p><p>given a realistic, but not over-whelming, exposure to the</p><p>situation which provides them an accurate assessment of the</p><p>upcoming stressors. Then, based on this mental or cognitive</p><p>picture, they conduct situational assessments and behavioral</p><p>observations which build a sense of control and predictability.</p><p>They learn which behaviors are productive and which will not</p><p>be useful in coping with the identified stressor. They learn</p><p>they are capable of enduring significant amounts of stress and</p><p>how to handle the feeling of being overwhelmed when things</p><p>do not go as planned.</p><p>Phase two is the Skills Acquisition and Rehearsal Phase. In</p><p>this phase, individuals work on problem-focused solutions;</p><p>they practice problem-solving activities by using coping</p><p>behaviors in simulated and manageable realistic settings.</p><p>Emotion-focused, palliative coping skills are also practiced,</p><p>especially when the individual has to deal with unchangeable</p><p>and uncontrollable external stressors like captivity. An</p><p>extensive repertoire of coping responses are acquired and</p><p>mastered gradually through multiple trials. When the mastery</p><p>of effective coping skills has reached a proficient level,</p><p>individuals engage in behavioral rehearsal, which is where</p><p>effective self-regulated coping responses are demonstrated.</p><p>96</p><p>In phase three, the Application and Follow-Through Phase,</p><p>individuals are exposed to more and more stressful situations</p><p>where they apply their coping skills. Through these graded</p><p>exposures, individuals reach a confidence level where, when</p><p>placed in realistic “in-vivo” settings, they persist in optimum,</p><p>resilient coping behavior.</p><p>This training has been empirically validated through</p><p>numerous studies and is the training regimen of choice for</p><p>preparing individuals to perform optimally in high-demand,</p><p>stressful situations. It is easily adapted to a multitude of</p><p>settings and produces the critical results we have been</p><p>addressing. It is analogous to the traditional process of</p><p>medical inoculation for the prevention of disease. This basic</p><p>immunization inoculation rationale should be familiar to all of</p><p>us. When I was young, polio was a severe physical threat to</p><p>the health of our nation. We all had to receive an inoculation</p><p>to hopefully prevent its devastating effects. We were injected</p><p>with a carefully measured amount of polio vaccine. This</p><p>amount of vaccine was calculated to cause our immune</p><p>systems to react and recognize the antigen, but not become</p><p>over-whelmed. The effect would be to simulate an attack</p><p>from polio at a level which our immune system could react</p><p>successfully and persist in the buildup of an ultimately</p><p>protective capability. Once this was accomplished, should we</p><p>become exposed to the full impact of the disease in the future,</p><p>we would not be overwhelmed and helpless to it ravaging</p><p>effects. Stress inoculation training produces analogous results</p><p>for individuals confronting stressful life events. This training</p><p>is remarkably adaptable to survival resistance training.</p><p>The ideal plan for incorporating stress inoculation training</p><p>into resistance training is to utilize the Biderman resistance</p><p>97</p><p>training model. This training model was originally designed</p><p>in 1956 at the direction of US Department of Defense (DoD).</p><p>At that time, the DoD tasked a working group of military</p><p>experts, former POWs, and the most prominent behavioral</p><p>scientists of the day to develop an ideal resistance training</p><p>plan. Today, with minor, but significant scientific</p><p>modifications, this model remains the state-of-the-art program</p><p>for captivity and resistance training. This program was</p><p>recently re-validated by four of the world’s most eminent</p><p>behavioral scientists (Joseph Mattarazzo, Ph.D., Charles</p><p>Speilberger, Ph.D., Richard Lazarus, Ph.D., and Albert</p><p>Bandera, Ph.D.). These highly respected authorities were</p><p>unanimous in their evaluation of the Biderman model as</p><p>being a superior learning process when compared to other</p><p>more traditional DoD training models. The Bideman model</p><p>has five components or interrelated phases of training:</p><p>1. Pre-Academic Captivity Exposure</p><p>2. Pre-Academic Captivity Exposure Debrief</p><p>3. Academics and Role-Play Laboratory</p><p>4. Post-Academic Detention</p><p>5. Post-Training Debrief</p><p>These training programs combine seamlessly to form an ideal</p><p>resistance survival training program.</p><p>98</p><p>Who should receive this special application of stress</p><p>inoculation training? Of all possible groups, this training is</p><p>particularly applicable and easily adaptable to military</p><p>organizations involved in survival resistance training. Over</p><p>the past six years, this training method has proven to be</p><p>extremely effective in real-world captivity incidents for the</p><p>United States, Department of Defense, Joint Special</p><p>Operations Command high-risk operators. Most recently, Dr.</p><p>Jim Mitchell, Survival, Evasion, Resistance, and Escape</p><p>(SERE) Psychologist at the US Air Force Survival School,</p><p>compared a specialized application of stress inoculation</p><p>resistance training with a more traditional resistance training</p><p>approach on aircrew members. The results of his research</p><p>show consistently higher levels of confidence in perceived</p><p>ability to adhere to the Code of Conduct (in captivity) for</p><p>aircrews receiving stress inoculation training as compared to</p><p>aircrews who were trained by the more traditional method.</p><p>Captivity occurs with great regularity for military personnel</p><p>as compared with individuals in the civilian population. This</p><p>is particularly the case for certain high-risk units. Because</p><p>captivity is a fortuitous event, it is unrealistic to assume these</p><p>high-risk operators will be exposed to the first naturalistic</p><p>method of acquiring resilience.</p><p>Captivity is not a naturally occurring life event. Unlike</p><p>exploration and high adventure wilderness sports,</p><p>which tend</p><p>99</p><p>to prepare participants for their unique potential survival</p><p>difficulties, captivity is not a sought-after endeavor. It would</p><p>be an extremely unfortunate person whose life had prepared</p><p>him thoroughly for captivity. Nonetheless, military men and</p><p>women consistently become captives. We have examined the</p><p>consequences of thrusting unprepared individuals into</p><p>extreme survival settings. We know that ideal levels of</p><p>resilience in survival experiences are not inborn; they are</p><p>situation-specific; if not acquired in a naturally-occurring</p><p>manner, resilience must be learned. If resilience is not learned</p><p>prior to captivity, resistance behavior will be much less</p><p>effective or possibly inadequate. The consequences of this</p><p>lack of resilience can be devastating to the captive, the</p><p>captive’s government, and comrades. Without resistance</p><p>training, captives must endure one of the most extreme</p><p>survival circumstances possible with little or no relevant</p><p>knowledge, skills, or realistic confidence. With proper</p><p>training, captivity survival can be proactive. Captives will be</p><p>more capable of protecting information and themselves. They</p><p>will survive in a manner which preserves their ability to fight</p><p>again effectively instead of rendering them less prepared for</p><p>future conflict as a result of learned helplessness.</p><p>The military services of many nations recognize the need to</p><p>prepare their high-risk operators for the possibility of</p><p>captivity and provide training for them. I have participated in</p><p>several of these training programs and, without question, they</p><p>are staffed with talented instructors who provide excellent</p><p>training. All of these training programs strive to give the best</p><p>possible preparation to their students. Those who are placed</p><p>in harm’s way in the service of their nations must be</p><p>prepared. With minimal modification and staff training, these</p><p>excellent programs can be even more effective. Those of us</p><p>100</p><p>involved in the profession of survival training should</p><p>constantly seek ways to improve students’ preparation.</p><p>Incorporating these empirically proven principals in a</p><p>resistance-specific application of stress inoculation training</p><p>will significantly improve a captive’s ability to survive. The</p><p>result will be optimum survival resilience.</p><p>101</p><p>THE ELEMENTS OF SURVIVAL</p><p>102</p><p>3</p><p>“We shall draw from the heart of suffering itself the means of</p><p>inspiration and survival.”</p><p>—Winston Churchill</p><p>103</p><p>Tiger</p><p>104</p><p>Boa constrictor</p><p>105</p><p>Jungle snake</p><p>106</p><p>Mosquito</p><p>107</p><p>Jaguar</p><p>108</p><p>Poison dart frogs</p><p>Jungles, or rain forests, are lush, green areas teeming with life</p><p>of all shapes and sizes. Although they only cover about two</p><p>percent of the earth’s surface, they’re home to fifty percent of</p><p>all plants and animals. If that doesn’t describe how vital they</p><p>are, consider this: A four-square-mile (ten-square-kilometer)</p><p>area of a rainforest can contain as many as 1,500 plants, 750</p><p>species of trees, 400 species of birds, and 150 species of</p><p>butterflies.</p><p>109</p><p>The good news about the jungle is that water and food are</p><p>plentiful. The bad news is twofold:</p><p>1. The jungle’s thick overhead canopy makes it nearly</p><p>impossible for anyone to spot you.</p><p>2. There are lots of things that can kill you, including</p><p>mosquitoes carrying malaria, small brightly colored poison</p><p>dart frogs, snakes, poisonous plants, and even jaguars and</p><p>tigers.</p><p>Stay or move away from snakes, particularly boa constrictors,</p><p>coral snakes, and fer-de-lances. Try to avoid insects. They can</p><p>cause serious allergic reactions. Learn from the natives, who</p><p>rub garlic on themselves to ward off bugs and snakes.</p><p>If you encounter a jaguar, never run from it. Walk toward it</p><p>while shouting and clapping.</p><p>Types of Jungles</p><p>Tropical areas can be described as:</p><p>• Secondary jungles</p><p>• Tropical rain forests</p><p>• Semi-evergreen seasonal and monsoon forests</p><p>• Tropical scrub and thorn forests</p><p>• Tropical savannas</p><p>110</p><p>• Saltwater swamps</p><p>• Freshwater swamps</p><p>Secondary Jungles</p><p>Similar to rain forests. The difference is that sunlight does</p><p>penetrate to the jungle floor in secondary jungles. Such</p><p>growth is typical along riverbanks, on jungle fringes, and</p><p>where people have cleared the rain forest.</p><p>Tropical Rain Forests</p><p>Found across the equator in the Amazon and Congo basins,</p><p>parts of Indonesia, and several Pacific islands. Rain forests</p><p>are characterized by their climate, which includes about three</p><p>and one half meters of rainfall throughout the year, and</p><p>temperatures ranging from about 90 degrees Fahrenheit</p><p>during the day to 70 degrees Fahrenheit at night.</p><p>Rain forests typically have five layers of vegetation:</p><p>1. Jungle trees rise from buttress roots to heights of sixty</p><p>meters.</p><p>2. Smaller trees produce a canopy so thick that little light</p><p>reaches the jungle floor.</p><p>3. Seedlings struggle beneath them to reach light and masses</p><p>of vines and lianas twist up to the sun.</p><p>4. Ferns, mosses, and herbaceous plants push through a thick</p><p>carpet of leaves.</p><p>111</p><p>5. A large variety of fungi grow on leaves and fallen tree</p><p>trunks.</p><p>Since little light reaches the jungle floor, there is little</p><p>undergrowth to hamper movement. But dense growth limits</p><p>visibility to about fifty meters, making it easy to lose your</p><p>sense of direction. And the thick canopy makes it extremely</p><p>difficult to be spotted by aircraft.</p><p>Semi-Evergreen Seasonal and Monsoon Forests</p><p>Found in parts of Columbia, Venezuela, and the Amazon</p><p>basin in South America; in portions of coastal southeast</p><p>Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique in Africa; and in</p><p>northeastern India, much of Burma (Republic of the Union of</p><p>Myanmar), Thailand, Indochina, Java, and parts of other</p><p>Indonesian islands.</p><p>These forests are characterized by two stories of tree strata.</p><p>Those in the upper story average eighteen to twenty-four</p><p>meters while those in the lower story average seven to</p><p>thirteen meters. The diameter of both strata of trees averages</p><p>one-half meter, and their leaves fall during seasonal droughts.</p><p>With the exception of sago, nipa, and coconut palms, the</p><p>same edible plants grow in these areas as in the tropical rain</p><p>forests.</p><p>112</p><p>Jungle trees</p><p>Tropical Scrub and Thorn Forests</p><p>Found on the west coast of Mexico, Yucatan peninsula,</p><p>Venezuela, and Brazil; on the northwest coast and central</p><p>parts of Africa; and in Asia, Turkestan and India. They have</p><p>five main characteristics:</p><p>113</p><p>1. There is a clearly defined dry season.</p><p>2. Trees are leafless during the dry season.</p><p>3. Fires occur frequently during the dry season.</p><p>4. The ground is bare except for a few tufted plants in</p><p>bunches; grasses are uncommon.</p><p>4. Plants with thorns predominate.</p><p>When traveling through these areas, keep in mind that while</p><p>plants are abundant during the rainy season, you will find it</p><p>hard to obtain food plants during the dry season.</p><p>Tropical Savannas</p><p>Found within the tropical zones in South America and Africa,</p><p>including parts of Venezuela, Brazil, and the Guianas in</p><p>South America; and the southern Sahara (north-central</p><p>Cameroon, Gabon, and southern Sudan), Benin, Togo, most</p><p>of Nigeria, northeastern Zaire, northern Uganda, western</p><p>Kenya, part of Malawi, part of Tanzania, southern Zimbabwe,</p><p>Mozambique, and western Madagascar in Africa. They looks</p><p>like broad, grassy meadows with trees spaced at wide</p><p>intervals.</p><p>Saltwater Swamps</p><p>Found in West Africa, Madagascar, Malaysia, the Pacific</p><p>islands, Central and South America, and at the mouth of the</p><p>Ganges River in India. Common in coastal areas subject to</p><p>tidal flooding, saltwater swamps have tides that can vary as</p><p>114</p><p>much as twelve meters and have a large variety of hostile</p><p>creatures, from leeches and insects to crocodiles and caimans.</p><p>Avoid these swamps if possible.</p><p>Mangrove trees thrive in these swamps, and can reach heights</p><p>of twelve meters. Their tangled roots are an obstacle to</p><p>movement. Visibility in this type of swamp is poor.</p><p>Freshwater Swamps</p><p>Found in low-lying inland areas and characterized by masses</p><p>of thorny undergrowth, reeds, grasses, and occasional short</p><p>palms that reduce visibility and make travel difficult.</p><p>There</p><p>are often islands that dot these swamps, allowing you to get</p><p>out of the water. Wildlife is abundant.</p><p>Familiarize Yourself with Your Environment</p><p>Knowledge of field skills, the ability to improvise, and the</p><p>application of the principles of survival will increase your</p><p>prospects of survival. Don’t be afraid of being alone in the</p><p>jungle, as fear can lead to panic. And panic can lead to</p><p>exhaustion and decrease your odds of survival.</p><p>One of the worst aspects of a jungle is the density of the</p><p>vegetation, which makes it difficult to navigate. To get a</p><p>better viewpoint of your surroundings, look for a high area</p><p>that is not obstructed or climb a tree and get above the</p><p>canopy. If you see depressions in the jungle where one side is</p><p>higher than the other, that could be a river, which means</p><p>civilization may be nearby.</p><p>115</p><p>Nature will provide water, food, and plenty of materials for</p><p>building shelters.</p><p>Everything in the jungle thrives, including disease germs and</p><p>parasites that breed at an alarming rate.</p><p>Indigenous peoples have lived for hundreds of years by</p><p>hunting and gathering. However, it will take a non-native</p><p>significant time to get used to the conditions and activity of</p><p>tropical survival.</p><p>Weather</p><p>Weather in a jungle environment can be harsh. High</p><p>temperatures, heavy rainfall, and oppressive humidity</p><p>characterize equatorial and subtropical regions, except at high</p><p>altitudes. At low altitudes, temperature variation is seldom</p><p>less than 50 degrees Fahrenheit and is often more than 95</p><p>degrees Fahrenheit. At altitudes over 1,500 meters, ice often</p><p>forms at night. The rain has a cooling effect but when it stops,</p><p>the temperature soars.</p><p>Rainfall can be heavy, depending on the season, often</p><p>accompanied by thunder and lightning. Sudden rain beats on</p><p>the tree canopy, turning trickles into raging torrents and</p><p>causing rivers to rise. Jut as suddenly, the rain stops. Violent</p><p>storms may occur, usually toward the end of the summer</p><p>months.</p><p>Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons develop over the sea and</p><p>rush inland, causing tidal waves and devastation ashore. In</p><p>choosing bivy sites, make sure you’re located above potential</p><p>flooding. Prevailing winds vary between winter and summer.</p><p>116</p><p>During the dry season rains falls only once a day, while the</p><p>monsoon season has continuous rain.</p><p>Tropical days and nights are of equal length. Darkness falls</p><p>quickly and daybreak is just as sudden.</p><p>Immediate Considerations</p><p>Because of the thick canopy found in most jungle areas, it’s</p><p>unlikely you’ll be spotted from the air and rescued. You’ll</p><p>probably have to travel to reach safety.</p><p>If you’re the victim of an aircraft crash, the most important</p><p>items to take with you from the crash site are a machete,</p><p>compass, first-aid kit, and a parachute or other material for</p><p>use as mosquito netting and shelter.</p><p>1. Take shelter from tropical rain, sun, and insects.</p><p>Malaria-carrying mosquitoes and other insects are immediate</p><p>dangers.</p><p>2. Do not leave the crash area immediately, as rescuers may</p><p>be looking for you. If you do decide to leave, don’t do so</p><p>without carefully marking your route. Use your compass and</p><p>know what direction you are taking.</p><p>3. In the tropics, even the smallest scratch can quickly</p><p>become dangerously infected. Promptly treat any wound, no</p><p>matter how minor.</p><p>117</p><p>A water-purifying table at a FARC (Fuerzas Armadas</p><p>Revolucionarios de Columbia) camp. Members of this</p><p>notorious terrorist group throw river water on top of a</p><p>sand-base and charcoal-topped bed that funnels into large</p><p>plastic containers held below. This is how they purify</p><p>water! This pic was taken at a hostage-holding camp</p><p>somewhere in the jungles of Colombia</p><p>Water</p><p>118</p><p>The good news is that if you’re trapped in a tropical</p><p>environment, the chances are that water is abundant—in the</p><p>form of springs, rivers, and lakes. But initially you may have</p><p>trouble finding it. Often you can get nearly clear water from</p><p>muddy streams or lakes by digging a hole in sandy soil about</p><p>one meter from the bank. Water will seep into the hole. Make</p><p>sure to purify any water obtained in this manner.</p><p>Animals as Signs of Water</p><p>Grazing animals such as deer are rarely far from water and</p><p>usually drink at dawn and dusk. Look for converging game</p><p>trails, which will often lead to water.</p><p>Grain-eating birds, such as finches and pigeons, are never far</p><p>from water. They also drink at dawn and dusk. When they fly</p><p>straight and low, they are heading for water. When returning</p><p>from water, they are full and will fly from tree to tree, resting</p><p>frequently. Do not rely on water birds, or hawks, eagles, and</p><p>other birds of prey. Water birds fly long distances without</p><p>stopping, and birds of prey get liquids from their victims.</p><p>Insects, especially bees, are often good indicators of water.</p><p>Bees seldom range more than six kilometers from their nests</p><p>or hives and usually will have a water source in this range.</p><p>Ants also need water. A column of ants marching up a tree is</p><p>going to a small reservoir of trapped water. Most flies stay</p><p>within one hundred meters of water, especially the European</p><p>mason fly, easily recognized by its iridescent-green body.</p><p>Human tracks will usually lead to a well, borehole, or soak.</p><p>Scrub or rocks may cover it to reduce evaporation. Replace</p><p>the cover after use.</p><p>119</p><p>Water from Plants</p><p>1. Vines with rough bark and shoots about five centimeters</p><p>thick can be a useful source of water. The poisonous ones</p><p>yield a sticky, milky sap when cut. Nonpoisonous vines will</p><p>give a clear fluid. Some vines cause a skin irritation on</p><p>contact; therefore, let the liquid drip into your mouth, rather</p><p>than put your mouth to the vine. Preferably, use some type of</p><p>container.</p><p>2. Roots. The water tree, desert oak, and bloodwood have</p><p>roots that grow near the surface. Pry them out of the ground</p><p>and cut them into thirty-centimeter lengths. Remove the bark</p><p>and suck out the moisture, or shave the root to a pulp and</p><p>squeeze it over your mouth.</p><p>3. Palm Trees. Buri, coconut, and nipa palms all contain a</p><p>sugary fluid that is very good to drink. To obtain the liquid,</p><p>bend a flowering stalk downward and cut off its tip. If you cut</p><p>a thin slice off the stalk every twelve hours, the flow will</p><p>renew, making it possible to collect up to a liter per day. Nipa</p><p>palm shoots grow from the base, so you can work at ground</p><p>level. On grown trees of other species, you may have to climb</p><p>them to reach a flowering stalk. Coconut milk has a large</p><p>water content but may contain a strong laxative in ripe nuts.</p><p>Drinking too much of this milk may cause you to lose more</p><p>fluid than you drink.</p><p>Water from Condensation</p><p>Sometimes, rather than digging for roots, it’s easier to let a</p><p>plant produce water for you in the form of condensation. If</p><p>you tie a clear plastic bag around a green, leafy branch, water</p><p>120</p><p>in the leaves will evaporate and condense in the bag. You can</p><p>get the same result from placing cut vegetation in a plastic</p><p>bag.</p><p>A FARC kitchen in the jungle</p><p>121</p><p>Banana tree</p><p>122</p><p>Breadfruit</p><p>Food</p><p>In the jungle, it may not be worth wasting energy hunting</p><p>animals or setting traps since there are typically plenty of</p><p>plants to eat. Take the time to familiarize yourself with edible</p><p>plants of the region in which you are traveling before you set</p><p>out on a trip. But if you’re in the jungle and not sure a</p><p>particular plant is edible or not, avoid it! Many plants in the</p><p>jungle are poisonous.</p><p>Tropical Zone Food Plants</p><p>123</p><p>Unless you can positively identify edible plants, it’s safer to</p><p>begin with palms, bamboos, and common fruits. The list</p><p>below identifies some of the most common foods:</p><p>• Bael fruit (Aegle marmelos)</p><p>• Bamboo (various species)</p><p>• Banana or plantain (Musa species)</p><p>• Bignay (Anti esma bunius)</p><p>• Breadfruit (Artrocarpus incisa)</p><p>• Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera)</p><p>• Fishtail palm (Caryota urens)</p><p>• Horseradish tree (Moringa pterygosperma)</p><p>• Lotus (Nelumbo species)</p><p>• Mango (Mangifera indica)</p><p>• Manioc (Manihot utillissima)</p><p>• Nipa palm (Nipa fruticans)</p><p>• Papaya (Carica papaya)</p><p>• Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana)</p><p>• Rattan palm</p><p>(Calamus species)</p><p>124</p><p>• Sago palm (Metroxylon sagu)</p><p>• Sterculia (Sterculia foetida)</p><p>• Sugarcane (Saccharum offcinarum)</p><p>• Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata)</p><p>• Sweetsop (Annona squamosa)</p><p>• Taro (Colocasia and Alocasia species)</p><p>• Water lily (Nymphaea odorata)</p><p>• Wild fig (Ficus species)</p><p>• Wild rice (Zizania aquatica)</p><p>• Wild yam (Dioscorea species)</p><p>125</p><p>Lotus</p><p>126</p><p>127</p><p>Mangos</p><p>Papaya tree</p><p>128</p><p>Persimmons</p><p>129</p><p>130</p><p>Palm tree</p><p>Sugarcane</p><p>131</p><p>Taro</p><p>Figs</p><p>132</p><p>Rice</p><p>Rain forests are also full of biologically active compounds,</p><p>many of which you can use for food or medicine. You can eat</p><p>edible tubers such as potato, yucca, and boniato, but be sure</p><p>you can distinguish edible tubers from poisonous ones.</p><p>Shelter</p><p>Local weather and predators will determine your shelter</p><p>needs. Do you need warmth or just a roof? Are there animals</p><p>or insects that you need avoid? Falling trees and branches are</p><p>the biggest killers of people in the jungle, so if you have to</p><p>make a bivy or a camp, find clear ground.</p><p>The Maya use cohune palm fronds to build thatched roofs on</p><p>their huts. These roofs will withstand rain and wind and can</p><p>last up to fifteen years.</p><p>Navigation</p><p>Trekking in the jungle can be hazardous. Watch where you</p><p>tread. Step over a log or grab a vine without looking, and you</p><p>could get stung or bitten.</p><p>133</p><p>Palm frond hut</p><p>134</p><p>A meeting place set up in the Amazon jungle</p><p>135</p><p>136</p><p>Jungle canopy view</p><p>With practice, movement through thick undergrowth and</p><p>jungle can be done efficiently. Always wear long sleeves and</p><p>long pants to avoid sunburn, rashes, cuts, and scratches.</p><p>To move easily, you must develop “jungle eye,” which means</p><p>that you shouldn’t concentrate on the pattern of bushes and</p><p>trees immediately in front of you. Instead, focus on the jungle</p><p>further out and find natural breaks in the foliage. Try looking</p><p>through the jungle, not at it. Stop occasionally to examine the</p><p>jungle floor. Look for game trails that you can follow.</p><p>Stay alert and move slowly and steadily through dense forest</p><p>or jungle. Stop periodically to listen and gain your bearings. If</p><p>available, use a machete to cut through dense vegetation, but</p><p>don’t cut unnecessarily or you’ll quickly wear yourself out. If</p><p>using a machete, stroke upward when cutting vines to reduce</p><p>noise, since sound carries long distances in the jungle. Use a</p><p>stick to part the vegetation. A stick will also help dislodge</p><p>biting ants, spiders, or snakes. Do not grasp at brush or vines</p><p>when climbing slopes. They may contain irritating spines,</p><p>black palm, or sharp thorns.</p><p>Many jungle and forest animals follow game trails. These</p><p>trails wind and cross but frequently lead to water or clearings.</p><p>Use them if they lead in the general direction that you want to</p><p>go.</p><p>In many countries, electric and telephone lines run for miles</p><p>through sparsely inhabited areas. Usually, the right-of-way is</p><p>clear enough to facilitate relatively easy travel. When</p><p>137</p><p>traveling along these lines, be careful as you approach</p><p>transformer and relay stations.</p><p>The sun and stars are always reliable navigational tools</p><p>Protect Your Clothing—by Wade Chapple</p><p>If you find yourself in a life or death struggle for survival and</p><p>you do not have your second or third line gear with you, it is</p><p>likely that you’re wearing your only available clothing. In the</p><p>jungle, understand that your clothing will wear out quickly, so</p><p>take time to preserve the clothing available to you. Once it’s</p><p>gone, you’ll become more exposed to the elements and thus</p><p>more susceptible to injuries and disease.</p><p>Main Items:</p><p>T-shirts/undershirts: If you have one of these, I recommend</p><p>you take it off and stow it away during daytime movement.</p><p>You can remove your outer shirt and put on the t-shirt/</p><p>undershirt once you’ve finished moving for the day.</p><p>Changing out of sweaty outerwear and into a t-shirt or</p><p>undershirt will be refreshing while affording you an</p><p>opportunity to wash and dry your outer shirt.</p><p>Underwear: Don’t wear underwear in the jungle, as they</p><p>cause chaffing and rashes. If you do have underwear, wash it</p><p>at the first opportunity and stow it away except to use as a</p><p>washrag or bandage for blistered feet, lacerations, infected</p><p>insect bites/stings, and so on. A clean pair thrown over your</p><p>head at night might just prevent the mosquitoes from stinging</p><p>your face, ears, and neck.</p><p>138</p><p>Outer clothing: If you find yourself alone in the jungle,</p><p>hopefully you’re already dressed appropriately for facing</p><p>possible survival situations. Your pants and shirt should be</p><p>loose fitting and have multiple cargo pockets where you can</p><p>stow needed items (first line gear) such as a compass, GPS,</p><p>signal mirror, and so on. Outer clothing will protect you from</p><p>the vines, thorns, rocks, insects, sun, and other things you</p><p>might brush against or face while moving through the jungle.</p><p>Conversely, it is your outer clothing that is most subject to</p><p>damage. Therefore, you must take the time to inspect and care</p><p>for your outer clothing, ideally once a day. If your clothing</p><p>rips, take the time to repair it as soon as possible; if you wait</p><p>too long, that tear might become a significant rip that will</p><p>ultimately turn your outerwear into a non-wearable rag!</p><p>Try to wash your outerwear at least once every two days.</p><p>Simply immerse your outerwear in a water source and gently</p><p>wring out the water. Repeat this a few times to rid the</p><p>outerwear of caked-on dirt, sweat, and body salt. Dry your</p><p>outerwear in the shade by laying the items on the ground or</p><p>by hanging them on limbs or vines. Never dry clothing in</p><p>direct sunlight, as doing this will weaken the fabric.</p><p>Boots: Leather footwear rots quickly in the jungle. Modern</p><p>military-issue boots tend to hold up better than the old-style</p><p>jungle boots, but the fabric on them still begins to weaken in a</p><p>jungle environment. In order to take care of your boots,</p><p>immerse them in water at least once every two days,</p><p>preferably in the late afternoon when you have stopped</p><p>moving for the day. To prevent inadvertent punctures or rips,</p><p>rub your boots only with your hands to remove caked-on</p><p>mud. While washing your boots, keep the laces laced and the</p><p>insoles inside of the boots. After gently washing your boots,</p><p>139</p><p>inspect them for damage, and then remove the laces and</p><p>insoles to dry these separately. It’s best to place two sticks</p><p>into the ground and hang your boots upside down, one on</p><p>each stick (the stick goes inside of the boot). Hang your</p><p>bootlaces above the ground to air-dry and wring out your</p><p>insoles before hanging these to air out and dry. Again, don’t</p><p>dry your boots and accessories in direct sunlight! Before</p><p>moving the next day, reassemble each boot and rub moist</p><p>mud all around the outside fabric in order to give the boots a</p><p>protective covering. Finally, if you have animal fat in your</p><p>possession, you can rub some of this fat into the fabric of</p><p>your boots as well in order to prevent them from drying out</p><p>and cracking.</p><p>140</p><p>Jungle knives</p><p>Socks: If your situation allows, wash and dry them every day</p><p>when you’ve finished walking. Your socks need to be washed</p><p>and aired out daily to reduce the effects of flesh-eating</p><p>fungus. In time, your socks won’t have much fabric left on</p><p>them, but don’t worry. They can be used as sweat bands while</p><p>141</p><p>walking. While your socks are drying, try to air out/dry out</p><p>your feet as well.</p><p>Hats: Wash out dirt, grease, and salt daily by immersing your</p><p>hat in water and gently wringing it out. Repeat the process as</p><p>necessary. Hang in the shade to dry. Your hat will protect you</p><p>from prolonged exposure to sunlight and consequential burns.</p><p>If you wear a brimmed jungle or “floppy” hat, pin about a</p><p>half-dozen safety pins on the brim for emergency use. You</p><p>can also affix fishing hooks for use in emergency situations.</p><p>Remember, the clothes you have on you may be all you have.</p><p>When they’re gone or unusable, your suffering will increase.</p><p>So take care of what you have in a survival situation.</p><p>142</p><p>Thai jungle knives: They’re made of high-carbon steel</p><p>that really holds an edge. They have a bit of weight</p><p>to it,</p><p>too, so when you put this on the end of a stick and swing</p><p>it, you can really cut through stuff.</p><p>Tropical Jungle Survival Kits—by Dave Williams</p><p>When traveling in, around, or over jungle areas, ensure that</p><p>your survival kit contains the following essential items:</p><p>143</p><p>• Water purification tablets (iodine)</p><p>• Plastic sheet (for building water stills)</p><p>• Non-lubricated condoms (water storage)</p><p>• Fire starters</p><p>• Butane or similar lighter</p><p>• Metal match (magnesium fire stick)</p><p>• Waterproof matches (in waterproof container)</p><p>• Kindling (Vaseline-coated cotton balls, pre-charred cotton</p><p>material, natural materials)</p><p>• Small magnifying lens</p><p>• Knife (sturdy fixed-blade knife with a four-to six-inch</p><p>blade)</p><p>• A smaller knife for more delicate work (folding multitool,</p><p>but be selective. Most tools are useless for survival</p><p>situations.)</p><p>• Snare wire</p><p>• Signaling mirror</p><p>• Compass</p><p>• Fish hooks and line</p><p>144</p><p>• Tetracycline tablets for diarrhea or infection</p><p>• Antibacterial ointment packets</p><p>• Solar blanket</p><p>• Surgical blades</p><p>• Butterfly sutures</p><p>• Insect repellent</p><p>• Needles and thread</p><p>• A mobile phone + extra battery, though larger and certainly</p><p>more expensive, satellite phones have better coverage</p><p>• An EpiPen if you’re allergic to insect stings</p><p>• Life-sustaining personal medication</p><p>Tropical Coastal (but not lost at sea) Survival</p><p>Kit—Add-On Essentials</p><p>• Solar still material</p><p>• Additional fishing gear</p><p>• Heavier fishing line (Braided line is very strong, but visible.</p><p>Bring monofilament also.)</p><p>• Lead or other metal weights</p><p>• Lures (jig and spoon-type lures pack well)</p><p>145</p><p>• Large bandana or piece of cloth for sun protection</p><p>• Collapsible sunglasses</p><p>• Lip balm with high SPF rating</p><p>Optional Coastal Kit Items—Space-permitting</p><p>• Hand-operated emergency desalination water pump</p><p>• Strobe light</p><p>• Signaling flares</p><p>Optional Land and Coastal Kit Items—Space-permitting</p><p>• Small water-purification pump</p><p>• Candle (“trick” birthday candles work well)</p><p>• GPS with mapping</p><p>• Whistle</p><p>• Tube tent or light hammock</p><p>• Lightweight poncho</p><p>• Aluminum foil</p><p>• Small flashlight and extra batteries</p><p>• Food bars/energy bars</p><p>146</p><p>• Parachute cord (550 cord)</p><p>• Sun protection</p><p>• Cooking kit</p><p>• Additional first-aid material</p><p>• Frog/fishing spear head</p><p>• Surgical tubing and slingshot pouch</p><p>• Assorted cable ties (many uses, from repairing broken gear</p><p>to make-shift lashing)</p><p>147</p><p>148</p><p>Quintana Roo, Mexico jungle</p><p>What You Don’t Need</p><p>• Rambo-style knife</p><p>• Multitools with everything imaginable</p><p>• Hatchet</p><p>• Knife-sharpening stone (nature provides plenty of natural</p><p>stones that work just fine)</p><p>• A shovel</p><p>• Toilet paper</p><p>Anytime you venture off into the jungle or rain forest, you</p><p>should carry the essentials: fire-making tools, a knife, a few</p><p>water purification tablets and since you’re probably going to</p><p>be around water, some fishing line, sinkers, hooks, and maybe</p><p>a lure and a map and compass.</p><p>How to Carry a Jungle Survival Kit</p><p>Waist packs work well. You carry your knife on the belt, too.</p><p>Any-thing that can be destroyed by getting wet should be</p><p>carried in a waterproof container. Look for one of several</p><p>brands of waist packs that are waterproof already. Naturally,</p><p>fire-making tools (lighters, matches, kindling, etc.) should be</p><p>kept completely dry. Double-packing fire material is always a</p><p>good idea. Even in wet conditions, if you have dry kindling</p><p>and can locate somewhat dry tender, you can start a fire.</p><p>149</p><p>If you’re on the sea or in a river, you can often carry most of</p><p>your survival kit in your PFD (personal flotation device, i.e.,</p><p>life jacket) pockets. The remainder can be in a waist pack.</p><p>Teddy Roosevelt’s Amazon Adventure</p><p>Theodore Roosevelt has the distinction of being the only</p><p>president who became an Amazon explorer.</p><p>In 1913 Teddy and his son, Kermit, set off to Brazil to</p><p>explore a recently discovered river deep in the Amazon</p><p>jungle. Their adventure became known as the</p><p>Roosevelt-Rondon Scientific Expedition.</p><p>The expedition encountered problems from the start.</p><p>Disease-bearing insects attacked members of the group,</p><p>leaving them in a constant state of sickness, with festering</p><p>wounds and high fevers. The heavy dug-out canoes provided</p><p>were unsuitable to the constant rapids and were often lost,</p><p>requiring days to build new ones. The food provisions were</p><p>ill-conceived, forcing the team on starvation diets. Native</p><p>Indian cannibals (the Cinta Large) shadowed the expedition</p><p>and were a constant concern. Also, one of the local guides</p><p>murdered another; a third was killed in the rapids.</p><p>150</p><p>A satellite image of part of the Amazon river.</p><p>Teddy almost died from a wounded leg that became infected.</p><p>His death five years later was blamed in part on health</p><p>problems he developed during the expedition. But he survived</p><p>151</p><p>and accomplished his goal of reaching the newly discovered</p><p>river, which was later named after him.</p><p>Knives with hollow handles are popular for carrying survival</p><p>gear, but they present two problems. First, the hollow handle</p><p>offers a limited amount of space. Second, hollow handles are</p><p>weaker. And you’re going to want a survival knife that is</p><p>extremely sturdy. That doesn’t mean that it has to be heavy or</p><p>a massive Rambo style knife, but it should be well made.</p><p>If you have the means to cut, pry, or split wood, coconuts, or</p><p>whatever without using your knife, do it. Save your knife for</p><p>those times when you truly need it.</p><p>To use your survival knife as a hatchet, hammer the back of</p><p>the blade with a club-like piece of wood. This is much more</p><p>efficient than hacking at the wood. When splitting bamboo,</p><p>this method works wonderfully. In fact, there’s no better way</p><p>to do it.</p><p>Crossing Jungle Rivers—by Wade Chapple</p><p>One of the most difficult problems you’ll encounter when</p><p>you’re moving under reduced visibility is what to do when</p><p>you encounter rivers. Piranhas, electric eels, crocodiles, and</p><p>various other harmful creatures not-withstanding, the winding</p><p>nature of jungle rivers can cause emotional stress, frustration</p><p>and exhaustion to the already stressed person who is simply</p><p>trying to survive and make it back to civilization.</p><p>Imagine slogging your way through the jungle and finding a</p><p>roaring river in your path. You summon your strength and</p><p>courage, and you cross it. Now you’re on the other side,</p><p>152</p><p>elated and exhausted. You move on. Five hundred meters</p><p>later you run into what appears to be the same roaring river</p><p>again!</p><p>Now repeat this process several times in the course of a day,</p><p>then multiply it with several days of movement.</p><p>Having to cross a particular jungle river once is difficult</p><p>enough. But having to cross the same river multiple times can</p><p>prove to be more than a frustrating. However, if you</p><p>understand the nature of jungle rivers and accept the fact that</p><p>you are going to remain wet during most of your survival</p><p>experience, there are ways to minimize the risks and</p><p>emotional frustrations of jungle survival and onward</p><p>movement.</p><p>153</p><p>Jungle terrain</p><p>There are three basic characteristics of jungle rivers:</p><p>1. Jungle rivers never run in a straight line. Instead, they</p><p>generally wind back and forth like a snake.</p><p>2. What seems to be a principal river may be nothing more</p><p>than an estuary or offshoot of the water’s main body. Getting</p><p>154</p><p>caught in the middle of these can be a frustrating and even</p><p>life-threatening endeavor.</p><p>3. Although it may seem that a jungle river frequently</p><p>reverses its course, it is actually moving in one general</p><p>direction, which is downhill and toward the sea.</p><p>Quintana Roo, Mexico river</p><p>155</p><p>Follow these three basic rules:</p><p>Determine which direction you need to travel to reach</p><p>civilization. Your choices are: with the current (downhill) or</p><p>against it (uphill). Remember, rivers originate in the</p><p>mountains and flow downhill toward the sea.</p><p>1. Estimate the general direction that the river is flowing. You</p><p>can do this by walking parallel to the river and taking</p><p>frequent azimuth recordings (as you would when navigating</p><p>at every bend in the river) to learn the river’s general</p><p>direction. In fact, you should repeat this process often during</p><p>your trek. Make sure you’re already traveling in the direction</p><p>you’ve chosen to take (upriver or downriver).</p><p>2. Once you have figured out the river’s general direction,</p><p>move away from one of the river’s bends and turn to continue</p><p>walking in the general direction you have previously</p><p>determined—upriver or down. If the river is situated to your</p><p>left, always keep the river to that side of you. If the river is to</p><p>your right, keep it to your right. If you continue to run into the</p><p>river, move farther away from it, then proceed in the general</p><p>direction you were going before. If you keep the river to one</p><p>side of you, you can always “steer” on an angle toward it to</p><p>reestablish contact with the river if you need to do so.</p><p>3. Finally, don’t let your frustrations undermine you. Be</p><p>patient. Remember, adjusting your direction of travel along</p><p>winding jungle rivers is really a process of trial and error and</p><p>your main source of sustaining life—water—will always be</p><p>nearby.</p><p>How to Survive Quicksand</p><p>156</p><p>First of all, don’t panic. Despite what you might have seen in</p><p>movies, it’s impossible for a person to become completely</p><p>submerged because the human body is less dense than</p><p>quicksand—which is a mixture of sand, clay, and saltwater.</p><p>The worst that can happen is that you’ll sink in to just above</p><p>your waist.</p><p>When people die in quicksand, they don’t suffocate. Instead</p><p>their feet become wedged in the densely packed sand at the</p><p>bottom, and they die of thirst or starvation, or, if they’re near</p><p>a coast, they drown in high tide.</p><p>If you fall into quicksand (which is usually found around</p><p>marshes and tidal pools), resist the natural instinct to kick</p><p>your way out. All that does is separate the sand from the</p><p>water, forming a very dense layer of sediment at bottom</p><p>where your feet are. Instead, stay calm and lean back so you</p><p>get as much of your body surface on the water as possible.</p><p>Once you start to float, move your feet—not in a thrashing</p><p>motion—but in small circles. You want to push more water</p><p>down into the thick sediment where your feet are. As you get</p><p>more of your body on the water’s surface, you should be able</p><p>to float free and paddle your way to solid ground.</p><p>157</p><p>Dense jungle in northern Bali</p><p>Amazon Survival</p><p>—As Told to Andrew Taber</p><p>Two Frenchmen traveled to the Amazon to hike an</p><p>approximately seventy-eight–mile section of virgin forest that</p><p>was supposed to take them from their drop point on the</p><p>Approuague River to Saül, an isolated former mining town at</p><p>the geographical center of French Guiana.</p><p>They brought with them enough food for the eleven days they</p><p>had budgeted for the trek, along with a compass, a machete, a</p><p>sixty-square-foot tarp, and two hammocks.</p><p>158</p><p>Some days went smoothly, and they seemed to be on track.</p><p>But on other days it would take several hours of hacking</p><p>through vines to hike just one mile. On the morning of the</p><p>twelfth day, they realized they were in trouble. Saül is in a</p><p>small valley, but the route ahead of them kept rising.</p><p>Exhausted and out of food, they had no idea where they were</p><p>in terms of their destination. Were they two days from Saül?</p><p>Two weeks?</p><p>They figured a search would be organized to find them, so</p><p>they decided to stay put. They used the tarp to create a roof,</p><p>and divided the tasks. One man was in charge of food, the</p><p>second tended the fire. Since they had only one lighter, they</p><p>kept the fire burning constantly.</p><p>Tapping into their survival instincts, they became very primal.</p><p>Since it was the rainy season, water wasn’t a problem. If they</p><p>thought a plant was edible, one of the two Frenchman would</p><p>try it. If he was okay the next day, they’d both eat the plant.</p><p>They also ate beetles, bugs, and large, hairy mygale spiders</p><p>(tarantulas), which they cooked until the venom burned off.</p><p>Still, they were starving. So they chewed just to chew.</p><p>Psychologically, they felt it helped.</p><p>Occasionally, they’d hear helicopters, which they couldn’t see</p><p>through the thick canopy. Nor could the helicopters see them.</p><p>Eventually the helicopters stopped passing and they started to</p><p>panic.</p><p>They learned later that rescue missions did stop forty days</p><p>after they had started their trek.</p><p>159</p><p>Around that same time, they decided that they weren’t going</p><p>to be found and they abandoned their camp. Using the stars,</p><p>they calculated which way was west, toward Saül, and started</p><p>walking. A week later, they caught a seven-pound turtle.</p><p>Since it was their first meat in five weeks, they ate absolutely</p><p>everything—skin, claws, scales. They even heated the blood</p><p>over the fire and drank it. They claimed later that it tasted</p><p>fantastic.</p><p>The following day, one of the Frenchman caught another</p><p>spider. But he put it in his mouth before he’d cooked off all</p><p>the venom. By the time he spit the spider out, pain engulfed</p><p>the entire left side of his tongue and his lips turned numb. He</p><p>tried to keep going in spite of the excruciating pain, but he</p><p>was too weak. By this time he’d lost fifty-seven pounds and</p><p>his partner had lost thirty-seven pounds.</p><p>The healthier of the two made a final trek into the jungle in</p><p>search of help. A day and a half later, a search and rescue</p><p>(SAR) helicopter came and hovered above the treetops. A</p><p>SAR gendarme rappelled 150 feet to the ground and took the</p><p>frail, sick Frenchman in his arms. They soon tracked down</p><p>the other survivor and after fifty-one days in the jungle, their</p><p>ordeal was over.</p><p>The two men learned later that they had walked seventy-five</p><p>miles, but had stopped two and a half miles from Saül. They</p><p>were furious with them-selves.</p><p>And they had also been foolish. The Frenchmen had gone into</p><p>the jungle with no local guide and had planned to travel seven</p><p>miles a day. Anyone with jungle experience will tell you that</p><p>seven miles a day in a virgin forest is ambitious.</p><p>160</p><p>The two Frenchman were also badly equipped, with only one</p><p>lighter between them and no communications kit. Had they</p><p>been carrying an Iridium 9505A satellite phone, they could</p><p>have been tracked online. They should have also carried flares</p><p>or tethered location-maker balloons that weigh about four</p><p>pounds and have a chemical that inflates when mixed with</p><p>water.</p><p>A simple fishing kit would have kept them supplied with</p><p>readily available, protein-rich food.</p><p>In the end it was their will to survive that got them through.</p><p>161</p><p>JUNGLE SURVIVAL</p><p>162</p><p>4</p><p>“It is not the mountains we conquer, it is ourselves.”</p><p>—Sir Edmund Hillary</p><p>Being at high altitudes under adverse condition creates unique</p><p>issues for all aspects of survival, from movement to health to</p><p>dealing with injuries.</p><p>163</p><p>164</p><p>Robert Edwin Peary, Sr. , an American explorer who</p><p>claimed to have led the first expedition, on April 6, 1909,</p><p>to reach the geographic North Pole Peary’s claim was</p><p>widely credited for most of the 20th century, though it was</p><p>criticized even in its own day and is today widely doubted.</p><p>Peary with dogs on deck of Roosevelt</p><p>Before you set out, familiarize yourself with some of the</p><p>unique challenges you might encounter:</p><p>Mountain Injuries and Illnesses</p><p>The best way to deal with injuries and sicknesses is to take</p><p>measures to prevent them from happening in the first place.</p><p>But it’s important to treat any injury or sickness that occurs as</p><p>soon as possible to prevent it from worsening. The knowledge</p><p>of signs and symptoms are critical in maintaining health.</p><p>Hypothermia</p><p>165</p><p>Hypothermia occurs when an individual’s body temperature</p><p>lowers at a rate faster than it can produce heat. The initial</p><p>symptom is shivering. Hypothermia begins when the body’s</p><p>core temperature falls to about ninety-six degrees Fahrenheit.</p><p>When the core temperature reaches ninety-five to ninety</p><p>degrees Fahrenheit, sluggish thinking, irrational reasoning,</p><p>and a false feeling of warmth may occur. Core temperatures</p><p>of ninety to eight-six degrees Fahrenheit and below result in</p><p>muscle rigidity, unconsciousness, and barely detectable signs</p><p>of life. If the victim’s core temperature falls below</p><p>seventy-seven degrees Fahrenheit,</p><p>death is almost certain.</p><p>To treat hypothermia, rewarm the entire body. If there are</p><p>means available, rewarm the person by first immersing the</p><p>trunk area only in warm water of one 100 to 110 ten degrees</p><p>Fahrenheit. Never rewarm the entire body in a warm bath, as</p><p>this can result in cardiac arrest and rewarming shock.</p><p>One of the quickest ways to get heat to a person’s inner core</p><p>is to administer warm water enemas. But such action may not</p><p>be possible in a survival situation. Another method is to wrap</p><p>the victim in a warmed sleeping bag with another person who</p><p>is already warm; both should be naked.</p><p>If the individual suffering from hypothermia is still conscious,</p><p>feed him hot, sweetened fluids. One of the best sources of</p><p>calories is honey or dextrose; if unavailable, use sugar, cocoa,</p><p>or a similar soluble sweetener. Never force an unconscious</p><p>person to drink.</p><p>The two dangers of treating hypothermia are:</p><p>166</p><p>1. Rewarming too rapidly. This can cause circulatory</p><p>problems, resulting in heart failure.</p><p>2. “After drop.” After drop is the sharp body core temperature</p><p>drop that occurs when you remove the victim from the warm</p><p>water. Warming the core area and stimulating peripheral</p><p>circulation will lessen the effects of after drop. Immerse the</p><p>individual’s torso in a warm bath, if possible.</p><p>Frostbite</p><p>Frostbite is a constant danger to anyone exposed to subzero</p><p>temperatures. Because it isn’t painful, frostbite often goes</p><p>unnoticed. Therefore, when operating in subzero</p><p>temperatures, you need to frequently examine your face,</p><p>hands, and feet.</p><p>Frostbite can occur on exposed skin:</p><p>• within thirty minutes below minus 22 degrees F</p><p>• within one minute below minus 60 degrees F</p><p>• within thirty seconds below minus 74 degrees F</p><p>Feet, hands, ears, and exposed facial areas are particularly</p><p>vulnerable. Skin that becomes dullish white in pallor is an</p><p>indicator of light frostbite. Deep frostbite extends to a depth</p><p>below the skin.</p><p>The best way to prevent frostbite when you are with others is</p><p>to use the buddy system. Check your buddy’s face often and</p><p>make sure that he checks yours. If you are alone, periodically</p><p>167</p><p>cover your nose and lower part of your face with your</p><p>mittened hand.</p><p>The following pointers will aid you in keeping warm and</p><p>preventing frostbite when it is extremely cold or when you</p><p>have less than adequate clothing:</p><p>Frostbite hands</p><p>• Face. Maintain circulation by twitching and wrinkling the</p><p>skin on your face. Warm with your hands.</p><p>168</p><p>• Ears. Wiggle and move your ears if you can. Warm with</p><p>your hands.</p><p>• Hands. Move your hands inside your gloves. Warm by</p><p>placing your hands close to your body.</p><p>• Feet. Move your feet and wiggle your toes inside your</p><p>boots.</p><p>Loss of feeling in your hands and feet is an indicator of</p><p>frostbite. If you have lost feeling for only a short time, the</p><p>frostbite is probably light. Otherwise, assume the frostbite is</p><p>deep.</p><p>To rewarm a light frostbite, use your hands or mittens to</p><p>warm your face and ears. Place your hands under your</p><p>armpits. Place your feet next to your buddy’s stomach. A</p><p>deep frostbite injury, if thawed and refrozen, will cause</p><p>severe damage.</p><p>Case of trench foot suffered by unidentified soldier</p><p>during World War I</p><p>169</p><p>An old remedy for frostbite called for rubbing ice or snow</p><p>into the affected part, but this will only lower the temperature</p><p>even more and risk removing the outer layer of skin. As with</p><p>most types of cold injuries, the best solution is to warm the</p><p>affected part gradually. Don’t rub the spot. Even the gentlest</p><p>massage can do a great deal of harm, as mentioned earlier. If</p><p>frostbite appears on your face, warm it by pressing your warm</p><p>fingers against it. If a wrist is frozen, warm it by grasping it</p><p>with the other hand. Frozen hands and fingers can be thawed</p><p>by holding them against your chest or under your armpits</p><p>inside your clothes.</p><p>Frozen feet are particularly serious because there’s a high risk</p><p>of losing toes. Keep your feet from freezing by using warm,</p><p>insulated footwear. If you suspect your feet are frostbitten,</p><p>take care of them immediately. Change to warm, dry footgear</p><p>if you can, or wrap them in cloth until they thaw. Warm them</p><p>gradually. Don’t put them close to a heater or a fire. A</p><p>burning sensation will follow the warming and thawing of a</p><p>frozen part, and can be extremely painful. After frostbite,</p><p>there may be blistering and peeling of the skin, as in sunburn,</p><p>because the extreme cold has “burned” your skin.</p><p>Trench Foot and Immersion Foot</p><p>Both conditions can result from hours or days of exposure to</p><p>wet or damp conditions at a temperature just above freezing.</p><p>Initial symptoms are a sensation of pins and needles, tingling,</p><p>numbness, and then pain. The skin will appear wet, soggy,</p><p>white, and shriveled.</p><p>If untreated, the skin will take on a red and then a bluish or</p><p>black discoloration. The feet will become cold, swollen, and</p><p>170</p><p>have a waxy appearance. Walking will be difficult as the feet</p><p>will feel heavy and numb. The nerves and muscles sustain the</p><p>main damage, but gangrene can occur. In extreme cases, the</p><p>flesh dies and it may become necessary to have the foot or leg</p><p>amputated</p><p>The best prevention is to keep your feet dry. Carry extra socks</p><p>with you in a waterproof packet. Dry wet socks against your</p><p>torso (back or chest). Wash your feet and put on dry socks</p><p>daily.</p><p>Dehydration</p><p>When you’re bundled up in many layers of clothing during</p><p>cold weather, you may be unaware that you are losing body</p><p>moisture. Heavy clothing absorbs the moisture that evaporates</p><p>in the air. It’s necessary to drink water to replace this loss of</p><p>fluid. Your need for water is as great in a cold environment as</p><p>it is in a warm environment.</p><p>One way to check to see if you’re becoming dehydrated is to</p><p>observe the color of your urine on snow. If your urine makes</p><p>the snow dark yellow, you’re becoming dehydrated and need</p><p>to replace body fluids. If it makes the snow light yellow to no</p><p>color, your body fluids have a more normal balance.</p><p>Cold Diuresis</p><p>Exposure to cold actually increases urine output, which</p><p>means that those body fluids need to be replaced.</p><p>Sunburn</p><p>171</p><p>Exposure to the sun results in sunburn more quickly at high</p><p>altitudes than at low altitudes. When in a mountain</p><p>environment, the sun’s rays also reflect at all angles from</p><p>snow, ice, and water, hitting sensitive areas of skin—lips,</p><p>nostrils, and eyelids. Always apply sunburn cream or lip</p><p>salve, if available, to your face when in the sun.</p><p>Snow Blindness</p><p>This can result from the reflection of the sun’s ultraviolet rays</p><p>off a snow-covered area. The symptoms of snow blindness</p><p>are a sensation of grit in the eyes, pain in and over the eyes</p><p>that increases with eyeball movement, red and teary eyes, and</p><p>a headache that intensifies with continued exposure to light.</p><p>Prolonged exposure can result in permanent eye damage. To</p><p>treat snow blindness, bandage your eyes until the symptoms</p><p>disappear.</p><p>Snow blindness can be prevented by wearing sunglasses or,</p><p>better yet, glacier glasses. If you don’t have either, improvise.</p><p>Cut slits in a piece of cardboard, thin wood, tree bark, or other</p><p>available material. By placing soot under your eyes, you will</p><p>help reduce shine and glare.</p><p>Even brief exposure to the sun on a relatively overcast day</p><p>can result in snow blindness, so take precautions.</p><p>Constipation</p><p>It is important to relieve yourself when needed, even in</p><p>extremely cold conditions. Eating dehydrated foods, drinking</p><p>too little liquid, and irregular eating habits can cause you to</p><p>become constipated. Although not disabling, constipation can</p><p>172</p><p>cause discomfort. Increase your fluid intake to at least two</p><p>liters above your normal two-to three-liter daily intake and, if</p><p>available, eat fruit and other foods that will loosen the stool.</p><p>Glacier glasses</p><p>173</p><p>Black Canyon, Colorado</p><p>174</p><p>Stages of Altitude Sickness</p><p>There are a variety of illnesses that can afflict poorly</p><p>acclimated individuals, usually occurring within the first</p><p>several days of ascending too quickly to altitudes greater than</p><p>8,000 feet. These</p><p>are caused by low atmospheric pressure,</p><p>ascending too quickly, high activity levels, dehydration,</p><p>excessive consumption of alcohol, poor diet, and/or the use of</p><p>over-the-counter sleeping medications.</p><p>175</p><p>1. Mild Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) Individuals with</p><p>AMS have headaches, shortness of breath when exercising,</p><p>loss of appetite, insomnia, weariness, and fatigue. (Similar to</p><p>an alcohol hangover.)</p><p>Treatment: Wait for improvement before ascending further!</p><p>Take either aspirin or acetaminophen to treat headaches. The</p><p>prescription drug acetazolamide (Diamox) may reduce the</p><p>incidence and the severity of AMS. Increase water</p><p>consumption and eat more carbohydrates. Symptoms will</p><p>usually clear up within twenty-four to forty-eight hours.</p><p>Those experiencing mild AMS should consider it a warning</p><p>and take time to acclimatize before continuing. Those that do</p><p>not acclimatize well should descend to lower altitudes.</p><p>176</p><p>Franz Josef Glacier, New Zealand</p><p>2. Moderate Acute Mountain Sickness. The symptoms of</p><p>mild AMS have progressed to the point that the victim is very</p><p>uncomfortable. Severe headaches that are only partially</p><p>relieved with aspirin (if at all), weakness, weariness, fatigue,</p><p>nausea, breathlessness at rest, and lack of coordination are</p><p>common symptoms.</p><p>177</p><p>Treatment: Persons with moderate AMS must stop</p><p>ascending and, if the condition does not improve, must</p><p>descend to lower altitudes. Failing to recognize what is</p><p>happening and not descending quickly can result in a life</p><p>threatening medical emergency—either High Altitude</p><p>Pulmonary Edema (HAPE) or High Altitude Cerebral Edema</p><p>(HACE), which occur within hours and can result in the death</p><p>of the victim.</p><p>178</p><p>Norway—U.S. Navy SEALS and German forces free-fall</p><p>parachute onto a frozen a lake in northern Norway during</p><p>exercise cold response. Cold response is a</p><p>Norwegian-sponsored multinational invitational exercise,</p><p>with more than 9,000 military personnel from fourteen</p><p>countries focused on cold weather maritime and</p><p>amphibious operations.</p><p>3. High Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE). HAPE</p><p>progresses to life-threatening seriousness in only a matter of</p><p>hours. Early signs include marked breathlessness on exertion,</p><p>breathlessness at rest, decreased exercise capacity, increased</p><p>respiratory and heart rate. In moderate to severe HAPE, there</p><p>is marked weakness and fatigue, bluish discoloration of the</p><p>skin, a dry raspy cough, and gurgling sounds in the chest. As</p><p>HAPE worsens, a productive cough develops.</p><p>Treatment: Immediate descent to lower altitudes is essential.</p><p>Descend 2,000 to 4,000 feet—get below 8,000 feet if</p><p>possible. Keep the victim warm. Exert the patient as little as</p><p>possible. Advanced treatment may consist of administering</p><p>acetazolamide in mild cases of HAPE and nifedipine in</p><p>moderate to severe cases.</p><p>How to Prevent HAPE</p><p>— Climb slowly—the faster the rate of ascent, the more</p><p>likely it is that symptoms will occur.</p><p>— Lay over at intermediate altitudes before ascending to the</p><p>final altitude.</p><p>— Avoid overexertion.</p><p>179</p><p>— Increase consumption of water.</p><p>— Avoid alcohol.</p><p>— Don’t use over-the-counter sleeping aids.</p><p>— Eat more carbohydrates.</p><p>— Sleep at lower altitudes.</p><p>— If you know you are susceptible, consult your doctor</p><p>about appropriate medications.</p><p>4. High Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE). HACE is the</p><p>result of swelling of brain tissue from fluid leakage and</p><p>almost always begins as acute mountain sickness (AMS).</p><p>Symptoms usually include those of AMS (nausea/vomiting,</p><p>insomnia, weakness, and/or dizziness) plus headache, loss of</p><p>coordination (ataxia), and decreasing levels of consciousness</p><p>including disorientation, loss of memory, hallucinations,</p><p>irrational behavior, and coma.</p><p>180</p><p>Author and his climbing partner at 19,500 feet</p><p>descending a route in the Andes</p><p>Treatment: Oxygen administration and medications</p><p>(dexamethasone) may temporarily alleviate symptoms and</p><p>facilitate descent, which is the necessary life-saving measure.</p><p>Hyperbaric bags are highly effective in conjunction with</p><p>dexamethasone and are relatively inexpensive and lightweight</p><p>(fifteen pounds). Evacuated patients should go to a medical</p><p>facility for follow-up treatment.</p><p>181</p><p>Denali—snow wall built around tent for wind barrier</p><p>Mountain Weather</p><p>Mountain weather can change quickly and dramatically. And</p><p>severe bad weather can strike unexpectedly. Suddenly you</p><p>can become blinded by snow and so numb with cold that you</p><p>can lose feeling in your outer extremities. The best way to</p><p>182</p><p>deal with it is to prepare ahead of time by packing the right</p><p>gear and learning how to predict and deal with severe weather</p><p>conditions.</p><p>WindChill Factor</p><p>The windchill factor is the temperature you feel on your</p><p>exposed skin because the wind affects how quickly we lose</p><p>heat from our bodies. In arctic environments, where altitude</p><p>and wind speed can be high combined with a low air</p><p>temperature, windchill can be very dangerous.</p><p>The importance of the windchill index is as an indicator of</p><p>how to dress properly for winter weather. In dressing for cold</p><p>weather, an important factor to remember is that entrapped</p><p>insulating air warmed by body heat is the best protection</p><p>against the cold. Consequently, wear loose-fitting,</p><p>lightweight, warm clothing in several layers. Outer garments</p><p>should be tightly woven, water-repellant, and hooded. Mittens</p><p>that are snug at the wrist are better protection than fingered</p><p>gloves.</p><p>To use the following chart, find the approximate temperature</p><p>on the top of the chart. Read down until you are opposite the</p><p>appropriate wind speed. The number which appears at the</p><p>intersection of the temperature and wind speed is the</p><p>windchill index.</p><p>183</p><p>Chart and facts courtesy of National Weather Service</p><p>184</p><p>Avalanches</p><p>185</p><p>186</p><p>Avalanches</p><p>Avalanches are always a big threat in the mountains. They</p><p>kill approximately fifty-eight skiers every year in North</p><p>America alone. When traveling to an avalanche risk area,</p><p>carry a beacon that, when activated, will transmit a signal that</p><p>the rescue services will follow if you get lost or buried in the</p><p>snow.</p><p>The key to avoiding avalanches is to read the snow. Use a ski</p><p>pole to test the snow to see if it’s compacted or in layers. If</p><p>it’s consistent when you push in the snow, it’s probably okay.</p><p>If it suddenly drops off, that indicates it’s in layers and</p><p>dangerous.</p><p>What to do if You’re Hit by an Avalanche</p><p>Immediately after you’re swept away, fight like hell to stay</p><p>on the surface of the slide. But once you’re engulfed, most</p><p>avalanche experts now agree that “swimming” won’t help you</p><p>rise to the surface. Worse, after the snow slams to a stop, all</p><p>that arm waving will have left you without an air pocket. The</p><p>safer bet: Keep your hands near your face while you’re</p><p>tumbling. And, if possible, try to stick one hand above the</p><p>surface. (Your chances of being found increase exponentially</p><p>if a part of you is visible.)</p><p>An Avalanche Story</p><p>The first avalanche hit at midnight. Seconds later the walls of</p><p>two ultra-light tents that four American climbers were</p><p>sleeping in collapsed. They awoke to ice and snow squeezing</p><p>them in the darkness.</p><p>187</p><p>Mount St. Helens looking south directly toward the</p><p>bulge. Numerous rock avalanches were triggered by</p><p>earthquakes.</p><p>It was late September, and the four climbers were deep in the</p><p>Kumaon region of the Indian Himalayas to climb 22,510-foot</p><p>Nanda Kot.</p><p>During their first attempt on the peak, they had been hit by a</p><p>severe north-blowing storm that killed more than a dozen</p><p>people.</p><p>Temperatures dropped to below zero, and heavy clouds</p><p>dumped more than six inches of snow per hour. They took</p><p>shelter by chiseling their tents inside a crevasse that sloped</p><p>downward into a seemingly bottomless pit. The orientation of</p><p>the opening protected them from the full force of the</p><p>avalanche that followed, but the snow still poured in fast and</p><p>deep.</p><p>188</p><p>As the cement-like mass pushed them farther into the</p><p>crevasse, the four American climbers fought to keep an air</p><p>space in front of their mouths while tearing through the tent</p><p>and pulling up frantically.</p><p>does this handbook have applicability in my</p><p>life today, as a business executive? Answer: YES! It raises</p><p>the business leader’s awareness that we travel in a dangerous</p><p>world, that knowledge, skill and proper preparation is</p><p>required to successfully meet our daily challenges, a “can do”</p><p>attitude positively affects those around us and mental</p><p>toughness is a required trait for success. This is a great read,</p><p>for the special ops soldier, survivalist, adventurist, and</p><p>business executive!”</p><p>—by Terry L. Carrico, VP, Corporate Security,</p><p>McKesson Corp. Colonel (R), U.S. Army, Military Police</p><p>Corps</p><p>9</p><p>CONTENTS</p><p>Introduction</p><p>Chapter One—SEAL/SERE Training</p><p>Chapter Two—The Elements of Survival</p><p>Chapter Three—Jungle Survival</p><p>Chapter Four—Mountain and Arctic Survival</p><p>Chapter Five—Desert Survival</p><p>Chapter Six—Survival at Sea</p><p>Chapter Seven—Basic Survival Tips</p><p>Chapter Eight—Water</p><p>Chapter Nine—Shelter and Fire</p><p>Chapter Ten—Food and Hunting</p><p>Chapter Eleven—Weather</p><p>Chapter Twelve—Navigation</p><p>Chapter Thirteen—Survival Medicine</p><p>Chapter Fourteen—Survival Kits</p><p>Chapter Fifteen—The Mystery of Survival</p><p>10</p><p>Acknowledgments</p><p>Photo Credits</p><p>11</p><p>“It is not the strongest of the species that survive, nor the</p><p>most</p><p>intelligent, but the one most responsive to change.”</p><p>—Charles Darwin</p><p>12</p><p>U.S. service members participating in a Survival, Evasion,</p><p>Resistance and Escape (SERE) course march to their first</p><p>field training evolution at a training site in Warner</p><p>Springs, Calif. Personnel attending the SERE course are</p><p>trained in evading capture, survival skills and the military</p><p>Code of Conduct.</p><p>13</p><p>14</p><p>Rangely, Maine—A student at the Navy Survival,</p><p>Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE) school crosses a</p><p>frozen creek.</p><p>Life can change in an instant. One moment you’re trekking</p><p>along a mountain ridge, and then you’re suddenly struck by a</p><p>rattlesnake. One minute you’re skiing down a mountain, the</p><p>next you’re facing an oncoming avalanche.</p><p>As Navy SEALS, we are trained to face dangerous situations</p><p>all over the world—at sea, in the air, and on land. We</p><p>understand that every time we launch a mission, unforeseen</p><p>circumstances—flash floods, aircraft crashes, poisonous</p><p>insect, animal or marine life bites—can cause us to be trapped</p><p>in an unfriendly environment, cut off from communication to</p><p>outside support. With every tick of the clock, our situation</p><p>can become more desperate. We are trained to deal with these</p><p>emergencies. We learn how to survive in the harshest of</p><p>environments without food and water.</p><p>But what if, God forbid, something like that happens to you?</p><p>Will you know how to treat yourself if you’re bitten by a</p><p>poisonous snake? Will you know what plants you can extract</p><p>water from if trapped in the desert? Or how to protect</p><p>yourself and your teammates from freezing to death in the</p><p>mountains? The answer to all these questions should be “yes.”</p><p>This handbook is all about developing the SEAL survival</p><p>mind-set, and arming yourself with the appropriate survival</p><p>techniques for numerous potentially fatal scenarios.</p><p>We live in a dangerous world. It’s your responsibility to be</p><p>prepared.</p><p>15</p><p>—Don Mann</p><p>U.S. sailors undergoing the third and final phase of Basic</p><p>Underwater Demolition/SEAL training use a rope to</p><p>guide themselves down the side of a cliff and into the</p><p>ocean during a field training exercise at San Clemente</p><p>Island, Calif. The third phase of the training provides the</p><p>students with skills in small arms weapons, demolitions,</p><p>and tactics, which culminate in the planning and</p><p>execution of various missions as an independent platoon.</p><p>16</p><p>INTRODUCTION</p><p>17</p><p>1</p><p>“Return with honor.”</p><p>—SERE school motto</p><p>U.S. Navy SEALs</p><p>I’ve spent my adult life as a Navy SEAL, preparing for and</p><p>dealing with the most dangerous situations imaginable.</p><p>From 1962, when the first SEAL teams were commissioned,</p><p>to the present, SEALs have distinguished themselves as being</p><p>individually reliable, collectively disciplined, and highly</p><p>skilled. Because of the dangers inherent in what we do,</p><p>prospective SEALs go through what is considered by military</p><p>experts to be the toughest training in the world—Basic</p><p>Underwater Demolition SEAL Training (BUD/S).</p><p>BUD/S is a six-month SEAL training course held at the Naval</p><p>Special Warfare Training Center in Coronado, California,</p><p>which starts with five weeks of indoctrination and</p><p>pre-Training. Following that, all trainees go through three</p><p>phases of BUD/S. The first phase is by far the toughest and</p><p>consists of eight weeks of basic conditioning, with a grueling</p><p>“hell week” in the middle—which is five days and nights of</p><p>continuous training on a maximum of four hours of sleep.</p><p>18</p><p>Hell week is a test of physical endurance, mental tenacity, and</p><p>team-work. As many of two-thirds of the class are likely to</p><p>“ring the bell” and call it quits during this phase. Those who</p><p>grit it out to the finish get to hear the instructors yell, “hell</p><p>week is secured!” The trainees continue on with a new sense</p><p>of pride, achievement, and self-confidence to second phase</p><p>(eight weeks of diving) and third phase (nine weeks of land</p><p>warfare).</p><p>19</p><p>20</p><p>U.S. Navy SEAL candidates from Basic Underwater</p><p>Demolition/SEAL (BUD/s) Class 288 participate in log</p><p>physical training (log PT) during the first phase of</p><p>training at Naval Amphibious Base Coronado, Calif.</p><p>21</p><p>Coronado, Calif. A student in Basic Underwater</p><p>Demolition/SEAL (BUD/S) class 270 navigates his way</p><p>through the chaos of smoke and explosions in one of the</p><p>final evaluations of hell week. On average, students are</p><p>allowed only four hours of sleep during hell week, and</p><p>those who complete it have about a 95 percent chance of</p><p>graduating BUD/S.</p><p>Basic Underwater Demolition/ SEAL (BUDs) students</p><p>participate in Surf Passage at Naval Amphibious Base</p><p>Coronado.</p><p>After BUD/S is completed, all trainees go through three</p><p>weeks of basic parachute training, followed by eight weeks of</p><p>22</p><p>SEAL qualification training in mission planning, operations,</p><p>and tactic, techniques, and procedures.</p><p>BUD/S ends with the formal BUD/S class graduation. It was</p><p>a very proud day for me to stand with my classmates in our</p><p>dress navy uniforms and listen to our SEAL officers talk</p><p>about the special group we were about to enter, and the great</p><p>honor it is to serve as a U.S. Navy SEAL.</p><p>BUD/S Phases</p><p>Phase 1—Physical Conditioning (eight weeks)</p><p>Soft sand runs</p><p>Swimming—up to two miles with/fins in the ocean</p><p>Calisthenics Timed obstacle course</p><p>Four-mile timed runs in boots Small boat seamanship</p><p>Hydrographic surveys and creating charts</p><p>Hell week—week 4 of phase 1—five and one-half days of</p><p>continuous training on little to no sleep</p><p>Phase 2—Diving (eight weeks)</p><p>Step up intensity of the physical training</p><p>Focus on combat diving</p><p>Open-circuit (compressed air) SCUBA</p><p>23</p><p>Closed-circuit (100% oxygen) SCUBA</p><p>Long-distance navigation dives</p><p>Mission-focused combat swimming and diving techniques</p><p>Phase 3—Land Warfare (nine weeks)</p><p>Increasingly strenuous physical training</p><p>Weapons training</p><p>Demolitions (military explosives)</p><p>Small unit tactics</p><p>Patrolling techniques</p><p>Rappelling and fast rope operations</p><p>Marksmanship</p><p>24</p><p>As an instructor monitors a training evolution, Basic</p><p>Underwater Demolition/ SEAL (BUDS) Class 244 receives</p><p>instructions on their next exercise while they lay in the</p><p>surf.</p><p>25</p><p>Kodiak, Alaska—Navy SEALs perform advanced cold</p><p>weather training to experience the physical stress of the</p><p>environment and how their equipment will operate, or</p><p>even sound, in adverse conditions. Navy SEALs are</p><p>maritime special operations forces that strike from the</p><p>sea, air, and land. They operate in small numbers,</p><p>infiltrating their objective areas by fixed-wing aircraft,</p><p>helicopters, navy surface ships, combatant craft and</p><p>submarines. SEALs have the ability to conduct a variety</p><p>of high-risk missions, utilizing unconventional warfare,</p><p>direct action, special reconnaissance, combat search and</p><p>rescue, diversionary attacks and precision strikes.</p><p>All BUD/S graduates then fly out to Kodiak Island, Alaska,</p><p>for a twenty-eight day winter warfare course,</p><p>When the slope finally settled, one</p><p>of the three male climbers ended up with his head and one</p><p>arm above the surface. He immediately started digging and</p><p>found the sole female climber trapped near his knees. He</p><p>burrowed through the snow and ice until her hand grabbed</p><p>his. Upon hearing the roar of the approaching avalanche, a</p><p>second male climber grabbed an anchor they had set in the</p><p>crevasse wall. He caught the other male climber’s arm just as</p><p>their tent was crushed. Miraculously, all four climbers</p><p>survived.</p><p>189</p><p>K2</p><p>Using the light from a headlamp, they began digging for their</p><p>boots in the ten feet of debris. They knew they needed them if</p><p>they wanted to make it off the mountain. After six hours of</p><p>digging, they had dislodged everyone’s boots, their ice tools,</p><p>a stove, and four canisters of fuel. As the sun started to rise,</p><p>they cooked some dehydrated noodle soup and were sitting on</p><p>their shredded tents when a second avalanche hit. The four</p><p>climbers braced. It was 6:30 am, but suddenly it turned dark</p><p>again.</p><p>190</p><p>One headlamp popped on, then another. The climbers saw</p><p>that they were trapped in a ten-by twenty-foot space. Two of</p><p>them dug a fifteen-foot-long tunnel through the wall and</p><p>poked their heads out into a raging storm. They knew</p><p>immediately that there was no way they could have survived</p><p>out there. So they decided to stay in the chamber until they</p><p>either ran out of fuel or the storm surrendered. They figured</p><p>that their chances were thin. The crevasse’s unstable wall</p><p>looked like it might collapse under the weight of the</p><p>avalanche debris and new snow. And they were unroped. A</p><p>fall into the abyss below would be fatal.</p><p>191</p><p>Crevasse</p><p>On the second day, the four climbers came up with ways to</p><p>distract themselves—building chairs out of snow and playing</p><p>twenty-one questions. But by the third day, they couldn’t</p><p>escape the reality of their situation: They were going to die</p><p>there if they didn’t get out soon. Luckily for them, the storm</p><p>lifted on the fourth day and the slopes began to stabilize. They</p><p>192</p><p>tunneled out and spent the next twelve hours rappelling down</p><p>6,000 feet.</p><p>The crevasse probably saved their lives. Most climbers are</p><p>taught to avoid crevasses in a potential avalanche situation</p><p>since they’re considered terrain traps. These four climbers</p><p>were extremely lucky.</p><p>Steps to Take if You Find yourself Abandoned on a Snowy</p><p>Mountain:</p><p>• Keep your extremities as warm as possible and watch for</p><p>signs of frostbite—waxy, red-black skin.</p><p>• Glaciers are a good landmark. If you follow them down,</p><p>they’ll lead you out of the mountains.</p><p>• If you need to find your bearings on a sunny day, you can</p><p>find north, east, south, and west by using the shadow and</p><p>stick method. Find a stick, insert it into the ground, and you’ll</p><p>see that it casts a nice shadow. Mark where the end of the</p><p>shadow is and leave the stick for fifteen minutes. Mark the</p><p>next point and that will create an east-west line.</p><p>• Often dew will collect on leaves and pine needles</p><p>overnight, so if you’re desperately in need of water, this can</p><p>be a lifesaver.</p><p>• If you are lucky enough to successfully hunt food to cook,</p><p>remember to dispose of any leftovers or else you’re at risk of</p><p>black bears in the area coming for your leftovers.</p><p>193</p><p>Glacier National Park, Montana. Crevasses near the</p><p>terminus of Grinnell Glacier.</p><p>Keizo Funatsu—Lost Overnight in a Hurricane-Force</p><p>Blizzard</p><p>Keizo Funatsu was the sole Japanese member of the six-man</p><p>International Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1989-1990 that</p><p>had successfully dog-sledded 3,725 miles across Antarctica.</p><p>They were sixteen miles from their destination—Russia’s</p><p>194</p><p>Mirnyy base—when Keizo Funatsu vanished in a raging</p><p>blizzard.</p><p>He’d gone outside at four-thirty in the afternoon to feed the</p><p>sled dogs. At that time snow had stated falling and it was</p><p>about minus twenty-five degrees F. Within minutes the wind</p><p>picked up dramatically, and visibility became problematic.</p><p>Keizo, who was wearing only Gore-Tex boots, a wind parka,</p><p>and wind pants, long underwear, and wool socks, couldn’t</p><p>find his second ski, even though he’d planted his ski poles</p><p>upright in the snow to serve as guideposts.</p><p>195</p><p>Testing snow conditions at Cascade Mountains</p><p>He waited ten minutes for the visibility to improve without</p><p>any luck. When he tried to move back toward his first ski, he</p><p>found it almost impossible to walk straight ahead into the</p><p>wind. He tried moving left, then right, and realized that</p><p>because of the lack of visibility, he wouldn’t be able to find</p><p>anything even though his skis were, at most, a few feet away.</p><p>196</p><p>He tried shouting, “I’m here. I’m here. Come on.” Frustrated</p><p>by the fact that he wasn’t far from the camp, he tried pushing</p><p>through the wind. Initially the cold didn’t bother him because</p><p>the adrenaline in his body was keeping him warm. But Keizo</p><p>was worried about his toes, which were getting cold.</p><p>He spotted some dog excrement and a faint sled trail of a sled,</p><p>which he tried to follow. It quickly disappeared. The sled trail</p><p>meant that Keizo was positioned behind the camp, so he</p><p>stopped.</p><p>Using a pair of pliers he carried in his pocket to help unfreeze</p><p>dog collars and fix broken ones, Keizo started to dig into the</p><p>icy surface and scooped out a shallow ditch about two and a</p><p>half feet deep. He put his feet in and allowed the storm to</p><p>bury him just as he’d watched the sled dogs do to protect</p><p>them from the elements.</p><p>The blowing snow covered him in seconds. Now, he was</p><p>completely covered and breathing through an air hole close to</p><p>his body. Unfortunately he wasn’t wearing much and the</p><p>snow, which was heavy, pressed down on his wind jacket, so</p><p>his clothes touched his skin. That left no room for a layer of</p><p>warm air to form.</p><p>As time wore on, Keizo realized that he’d probably have to</p><p>spend the night in the snow ditch since the storm hadn’t let up</p><p>and there was probably zero chance of his teammates finding</p><p>him in the dark.</p><p>He was cold and worried about losing energy. He didn’t know</p><p>if he should lie still or move around to try to warm his body.</p><p>He kicked his feet to keep the blood circulating. Every twenty</p><p>197</p><p>or thirty minutes he pulled himself out of the snow ditch,</p><p>jumped up and down, and rubbed his arms. At first, he tried</p><p>shouting but realized that he couldn’t be heard through the</p><p>raging wind.</p><p>The wind was so strong, in fact, that it pushed him away from</p><p>the snow ditch. He had to crawl on his stomach to find it.</p><p>Cleverly, he’d spread everything he had in his in pockets</p><p>around it as guides—pliers, headband, lip cream, compass,</p><p>pocket knife.</p><p>Keizo tried to think positively, saying to himself: “Very few</p><p>people have had this kind of experience, lost in a blizzard.</p><p>Settle down, and try and enjoy this.” With the snow and quiet</p><p>covering him, he felt as though he was back in his mother’s</p><p>womb. His life seemed infinitesimally small in comparison to</p><p>the vastness of Antarctica.</p><p>Keizo started to feel shame. Alone in the snow ditch, he</p><p>thought about the responsibility he had to the rest of the team</p><p>and the trouble he would cause them if he died sixteen miles</p><p>away from their destination—Mirnyy.</p><p>The sky above him started to lighten around five o’clock in</p><p>the morning. Keizo climbed out of the snow ditch and tried to</p><p>locate the sled trail again, but fresh snow covered everything.</p><p>He was concerned about his feet, which weren’t cold, but felt</p><p>like they were swelling. This was a sign of frostbite. He was</p><p>afraid to take his socks off and rub them because then his feet</p><p>would get wet.</p><p>Returning to the snow ditch, Keizo thought he heard</p><p>somebody yelling faintly outside, “Keizo! Keizo!” The storm</p><p>198</p><p>hadn’t let up, so he figured it must be the wind playing tricks</p><p>on him. He’d been hearing things all night, and had learned</p><p>how the wind could sound very much like a human voice.</p><p>Still, he jumped out of the ditch to look. He heard the voice</p><p>again and yelled back, “I’m here. I’m here!”</p><p>He couldn’t see anything through the falling snow. Finally he</p><p>heard a voice close by and screamed, “I’m here. I’m here!”</p><p>He made out team</p><p>leader Will Steger’s silhouette through the</p><p>blanket of white. Leaving his pliers and everything else</p><p>behind, he ran toward him.</p><p>Keizo saw that the rest of the six-member team was out in the</p><p>blizzard looking for him—walking in a giant circle, linked by</p><p>a three-hundred-forty-foot rope. They were thrilled to find</p><p>him. Some of them had tears in their eyes. He cried, too.</p><p>199</p><p>200</p><p>Maintain proficiency in rescue training</p><p>Dr. Beck Weathers—Surviving Mt. Everest</p><p>Plagued by depression, a turbulent home life, and seeking</p><p>adventure, Dr. Seaborn Beck Weathers of Texas set off in</p><p>1996 with nine mountain climbers to tackle mighty Everest.</p><p>Dr. Weather’s trouble on the mountain began when he lost his</p><p>vision at about 27,500 feet, caused by the effects of high</p><p>altitude on his eyes, which had been altered by radial</p><p>keratotomy surgery. After discussing this disability with his</p><p>guide, Rob Hall, Weathers decided to remain on the balcony</p><p>of the summit ridge until the other climbers descended back</p><p>to him.</p><p>But that afternoon a ferocious blizzard blew in from the</p><p>south. Hall and the other climbers became trapped and were</p><p>unable to descend. He and five others died.</p><p>Weathers, meanwhile, spent the night in an open bivouac in</p><p>subzero temperatures, blind, and with both hands and his face</p><p>exposed. When the surviving climbers reached him, they said</p><p>that his frozen hands and nose looked and felt as though they</p><p>were made out of porcelain. Seeing that he was in a deep</p><p>hypothermic coma, they left him for dead.</p><p>201</p><p>Mt. Everest</p><p>Miraculously, Weathers survived another freezing night alone</p><p>in a tent unable to drink, eat, or keep himself covered. His</p><p>cries for help couldn’t be heard through the blizzard even</p><p>though his companions were bivouacked in another tent</p><p>nearby. They were shocked to find him alive and coherent the</p><p>following day.</p><p>Weathers recovered enough to walk unassisted to the nearby</p><p>camp. From there he continued on his frozen feet to a lower</p><p>camp, where he was rescued by helicopter.</p><p>202</p><p>Weathers had his right arm amputated halfway between the</p><p>elbow and wrist. All four fingers and the thumb on his left</p><p>hand were removed. His nose was amputated and</p><p>reconstructed with tissue from his ear and fore-head. And, he</p><p>lost parts of both feet.</p><p>Despite these disabilities, Weathers returned to working</p><p>full-time as an anatomic pathologist. He said that his ordeal</p><p>made him a better, happier, more spiritual person.</p><p>Survival in the Andes</p><p>On October 12, 1972, a chartered military plane carrying an</p><p>amateur rugby team (known as the Old Christians) and some</p><p>members of their families left Montevideo, Uruguay, for</p><p>Santiago, Chile. Because of bad weather conditions over the</p><p>Andes, the plane was forced to land in Mendoza, Argentina,</p><p>where they waited two days for the weather to improve.</p><p>The mood aboard the plane was festive as the group finally</p><p>took off again. But as they approached Santiago, they hit</p><p>more bad weather. The inexperienced pilots of the Fairchild</p><p>F-227 lost control of the plane causing it to crash into the side</p><p>of a mountain and lose both wings and the tail. The aircraft</p><p>then slid on its belly into a step valley surrounded by snow</p><p>and mountains.</p><p>Because the roof the aircraft had been painted white, it was</p><p>almost impossible to spot by air rescue. Chilean, Argentine,</p><p>and Uruguayan military and civilian teams searched for more</p><p>than a week but couldn’t find any sign of the wrecked aircraft.</p><p>203</p><p>Thirty-two of the forty-five passengers survived the initial</p><p>crash. Within days, without adequate medical attention, the</p><p>most severely injured died in the harsh subzero conditions.</p><p>None of the survivors were prepared to face the severe cold,</p><p>and their provisions were limited to some alcohol, candy, and</p><p>a few miscellaneous items like crackers and jam. As the</p><p>survivors grew weaker and weaker, they realized that the only</p><p>way to survive was to eat the flesh of their dead colleagues.</p><p>On the seventeenth day they were hit by an avalanche, and</p><p>thirteen more people died. The remaining survivors realized</p><p>that the only way to make it out alive was to climb out of the</p><p>steep valley and find help.</p><p>After ten days of trekking through some of the highest</p><p>mountains in the world, Nando Parrado and Roberto Canessa</p><p>came across a Chilean peasant who was tending his animals</p><p>in a remote valley in the Andes. Initially, the peasant ignored</p><p>them when they tried to get his attention, fearing they might</p><p>be terrorists. But Parrado and Canessa persisted, and threw a</p><p>piece of paper and a pen wrapped in a handkerchief to him.</p><p>The paper read, “I come from a plane that fell in the</p><p>mountains. I am Uruguayan . . .”</p><p>On Thursday, December 21st—seventy days after the</p><p>crash—sixteen survivors were finally led out of the remote</p><p>valley and taken back to civilization in what became known</p><p>as “the Christmas Miracle.”</p><p>The ordeal was especially tragic for twenty-one-year-old</p><p>Fernando (Nando) Parrado, who had to bury his mother and</p><p>204</p><p>sister, who had accompanied him on the trip, in an arid,</p><p>freezing glacier.</p><p>Nando Parrado said later that he learned some important</p><p>lessons about survival:</p><p>1. Making quick decisions is a great virtue. Those who don’t</p><p>decide, die. “If I make the wrong decision I have time to</p><p>correct,” Parrado explained. “It’s far better to decide and</p><p>make mistakes, than not making decisions, because there is</p><p>always time to go back.”</p><p>2. Although democratic decision-making is good at certain</p><p>moments, sometimes a leader has to step forward to make</p><p>decisions because it’s not always easy for a group to reach a</p><p>consensus.</p><p>3. Leaders aren’t born; they develop their skills with their</p><p>actions. In other words, leaders are those who achieve good</p><p>results.</p><p>4. Obsessive focus on objectives and results will keep you</p><p>alive.</p><p>5. Creativity is needed to find solutions. Parrado explained</p><p>how he and others made plates out of pieces of aluminum that</p><p>were used to melt the snow into potable water. “Snow was</p><p>more important than food,” he said, “because the human body</p><p>dehydrates five times faster at 11,500 feet than it does at sea</p><p>level.”</p><p>6. Define which things are important and which ones are not.</p><p>He explained, “A hundred percent of the people who were</p><p>205</p><p>trapped with me in the Andes wanted to go back to their</p><p>families, not to their contracts, studies, or money. In fact, we</p><p>burned all the money on the plane ($7,000) to keep warm.”</p><p>Andes Mountains, Peru</p><p>206</p><p>207</p><p>Fernando Parrado and Roberto Canessa next to the</p><p>cattle driver who discovered them.</p><p>Author with his climbing partner descending Cotopaxi</p><p>(17,750 feet) in an attempt to beat the oncoming storm.</p><p>208</p><p>Author climbing in the Andes Mountains.</p><p>Arctic Survival</p><p>Arctic conditions extend into Alaska, Canada, Greenland,</p><p>Iceland, and much of northern Scandinavia and Russia. The</p><p>Arctic has no land mass but is a floating sheet of permanently</p><p>frozen ice. The Antarctic, on the other hand, consists of a</p><p>large land mass covered by a permanent ice layer, which in</p><p>some places is more than 1,000 feet thick.</p><p>209</p><p>Both regions have two seasons—long winters featuring days</p><p>with twenty-four hours of darkness, and short summers with</p><p>days that can have twenty-four hours of daylight. Summer</p><p>temperatures in the Arctic can rise to sixty-five F, except on</p><p>glaciers and frozen seas. During winter they fall to as low as</p><p>minus eighty-one F and are never above freezing.</p><p>Antarctic temperatures can dip even lower. The combination</p><p>of extremely cold air temperatures, high altitudes, and high</p><p>winds produce the most hostile environment known to man.</p><p>The average altitude in Antarctica is 2,300 meters (7,540</p><p>feet), with the highest point at around 4,000 meters (13,100</p><p>feet). Antarctic winds as high as 177 kilometers (110 miles</p><p>per hour) have been recorded. Winter winds sometimes reach</p><p>hurricane force and can whip snow thirty meters (100 feet)</p><p>into the air, giving the impression of a blizzard even when it</p><p>isn’t snowing.</p><p>210</p><p>Author and his climbing partner trying to warm up in an</p><p>ice cave</p><p>The polar regions of both areas are devoid</p><p>of large flora</p><p>species. On the other hand, aquatic animals such as the walrus</p><p>and seal (as well as whales and birds, including the penguin</p><p>found in the Antarctic) have adapted to the extremely low</p><p>temperatures. The North Pole is home to the world’s largest</p><p>land carnivore, the polar bear, which is one of the few</p><p>animals that will actively hunt humans.</p><p>211</p><p>Located south of the North Pole are large expanses of tundra,</p><p>where plant life is limited because roots can’t penetrate the</p><p>frozen ground. The only plants that grow are reindeer moss,</p><p>which is low, bushy, coral-like lichen that grows on the</p><p>ground common throughout northern Canada, and lichens,</p><p>which must be thoroughly boiled or soaked in water for</p><p>several hours before being eaten.</p><p>South of the tundra is a vast area of coniferous forest, called</p><p>the boreal forest, that extends to the temperate zone. In</p><p>Russia, this forest is known as Taiga and covers the areas</p><p>along the Siberian rivers northwards into the Arctic Circle.</p><p>Coniferous forests, which are also found in northern Canada,</p><p>contain a great deal of wildlife including bears, elk, reindeer,</p><p>lynx, wolf, sable, wolverine, and lemmings.</p><p>Hunting</p><p>Local tribes, people such as the Inuit of northern Canada and</p><p>Alaska and the Sami of northern Finland, have survived by</p><p>being skillful hunters. The Sami also domesticate reindeer,</p><p>whose milk is nutritious but low in yield, and whose venison</p><p>has a rich flavor. It’s also fairly lean, which isn’t ideal in the</p><p>cold temperatures where fat is needed to help the body</p><p>generate heat.</p><p>Musk ox has a strong flavor but is very high in fat. The Arctic</p><p>hare is very low in fat, so a diet consisting mostly of hares</p><p>will not be sustaining. Various parts of caribou can be eaten,</p><p>especially meat from the head, neck, shoulder, hindquarters,</p><p>heart, liver, brisket, ribs, backbone and pelvis. In the unlikely</p><p>event that you kill a polar bear, you’ll find that the meat is</p><p>tough and stringy. Some claim that it’s more tender eaten raw.</p><p>212</p><p>Polar bear livers are poisonous, however, so don’t eat them.</p><p>Seals are also edible.</p><p>Certain arctic birds—such as ducks, geese, and swans—have</p><p>a high fat content. During summer, many of these water birds</p><p>are unable to fly for two to three weeks while they’re molting</p><p>and can make easy prey. Snow partridge, gull, and tern</p><p>colonies can supply a good amount of eggs but are usually</p><p>hard to get to because they are usually located on small</p><p>islands or high on cliffs.</p><p>213</p><p>214</p><p>Checking climbing gear in a muddy cavern</p><p>A tent can be quickly buried in a snow storm. Be sure to</p><p>get up every hour during a storm to remove snow from</p><p>tent and tent entrance.</p><p>215</p><p>216</p><p>Cascade Mountains—using sled to protect gear from</p><p>snow.</p><p>Environmental Hazards</p><p>Arctic areas are some of the most inhospitable areas on the</p><p>planet. In tundra areas, expect travel to be difficult because of</p><p>deep snow and dense forests. The locals often use the frozen</p><p>rivers as highways, as these are generally wide and free of</p><p>obstructions. Of course, in spring these rivers can rapidly</p><p>thaw and become extremely dangerous. Also be aware that</p><p>it’s rare for large rivers to freeze completely, so don’t be</p><p>alarmed if you’re walking on a foot of ice and can still hear</p><p>water running under your feet.</p><p>If you’re lost, it’s usually best to follow rivers downstream, as</p><p>this will usually lead to some form of civilization. The</p><p>exception to this general rule is in Siberia, where many rivers</p><p>flow north and away from any inhabited areas.</p><p>Wind Chill and Breathing</p><p>In addition to the extremely low temperatures, upland areas in</p><p>particular can be subject to very strong arctic winds. Inhaling</p><p>cold air can actually burn the lungs and cause hemorrhaging.</p><p>To reduce the risk of this happening, learn to control your</p><p>breathing by exhaling completely but inhaling slowly and</p><p>shallowly at first until your lungs build up some resistance to</p><p>the cold. Controlling your breathing can also help you focus</p><p>and remain calm during stressful conditions. Remember that a</p><p>rapid intake of subzero air can cause considerable damage to</p><p>your lungs.</p><p>217</p><p>218</p><p>Alaska—author and his team breaking down camp</p><p>219</p><p>MOUNTAIN AND ARCTIC SURVIVAL</p><p>220</p><p>5</p><p>“A desert is a place without expectation.”</p><p>—Nadine Gordimer</p><p>Deserts are one of the most hostile human environments on</p><p>the planet. The extreme heat and aridness make desert</p><p>survival extremely challenging. Add other factors, both</p><p>physical and psychological, and conditions can be unbearable.</p><p>A desert is an area that receives almost no precipitation (rain,</p><p>snow, moisture), with an annual precipitation of no greater</p><p>than twenty-five centimeters per year. Surprisingly, the</p><p>world’s largest deserts are Antarctica and the Arctic in that</p><p>order, followed in turn by the best known hot desert, the</p><p>Sahara.</p><p>The world’s ten largest deserts, in size order:</p><p>• Antarctic</p><p>• Arctic</p><p>• Sahara</p><p>• Arabian</p><p>• Gobi</p><p>221</p><p>• Kalahari</p><p>• Patagonian</p><p>• Great Victoria Desert</p><p>• Syrian Desert</p><p>222</p><p>Desert outback</p><p>Dry desert sand</p><p>Natural Hazards</p><p>Most deserts are featureless (or have repeating patterns of</p><p>sand dunes), making terrain navigation difficult, and have</p><p>virtually no vegetation. The majority of desert animals are</p><p>nocturnal and remain hidden underground during the day to</p><p>223</p><p>conserve water and regulate body temperature. These include</p><p>coyotes, kangaroo rats, and jackrabbits.</p><p>A wide variety of insects and reptiles can also be found, but</p><p>many of these are poisonous either to eat or have poisonous</p><p>bites or stings. These include scorpions, which have a</p><p>tendency to lurk in footwear. So it’s important to make sure</p><p>that footwear is hung upside down or checked in the morning</p><p>before putting on.</p><p>Heat exhaustion is the most common problem caused by loss</p><p>of salt and fluid. The signs include weakness, headaches, pale</p><p>clammy skin, and mental confusion. Heat stroke has the same</p><p>causes but can be fatal if not treated quickly. Symptoms</p><p>normally include hot dry skin (unlike heat exhaustion),</p><p>headache, vomiting, a fast pulse rate, and a confused mental</p><p>state, which usually precedes unconsciousness and death.</p><p>Heat cramps are a result of loss of salt and are muscle cramps</p><p>that start in the limbs and can spread throughout the body,</p><p>eventually preventing any physical activity.</p><p>Sandstorms can last days and make navigation and travel</p><p>extremely difficult. They also can clog vehicle filters and get</p><p>into equipment, doing damage to everything from vehicles to</p><p>communications equipment. Keep a scarf or a piece of cloth</p><p>over your mouth and nose, and wear goggles or at least</p><p>sunglasses during a sandstorm.</p><p>The best advice for most people lost in the desert is to get into</p><p>the shade immediately and wait to be rescued. Obviously this</p><p>rule does not apply during desert warfare training or during</p><p>desert operations.</p><p>224</p><p>Heat</p><p>Desert heat can reach over 100 degrees F and can incapacitate</p><p>and kill you in a matter of hours. In the night, the</p><p>temperatures can drop to near freezing. Do everything you</p><p>can to keep cool and stay out of the sun.</p><p>Look for an outcrop of rock, the shady side of a gully or</p><p>streambed, or any shade you can find. Keep in mind that</p><p>you’re searching for an emergency shelter for a few hours,</p><p>perhaps, not a long-term one. You’ll have time to construct a</p><p>better shelter after the sun goes down. The critical thing is to</p><p>get out of the sun and into the shade as soon as possible.</p><p>Keep your whole body covered if you can. Keep your sleeves</p><p>rolled down and never remove your boots, socks, or any piece</p><p>of clothing while in the direct sunlight. Additionally, cover</p><p>the back of your neck to protect it from the sun. If you’re</p><p>wearing a T-shirt, remove it and use it as a scarf. Push one</p><p>end of the shirt up under your cap, and allow the other end to</p><p>hang over the neck. The most important part of your body to</p><p>keep cool is your head. Always wear a hat and, if for some</p><p>reason you do not have one, make a headdress out of</p><p>light-colored material. Regardless of the technique you use,</p><p>remember to keep your neck covered at all times.</p><p>It reduces</p><p>water loss through sweating and it also prevents sunburn.</p><p>Most desert survival experts agree that in the 120 degree-plus</p><p>heat of a desert, if you rest and do nothing, you may live for a</p><p>couple of days. If you go moving into the desert, you’ll most</p><p>likely cover less than five miles. If you wait until after the sun</p><p>sets, you may be able to cover up to twenty-five miles or so.</p><p>225</p><p>So, if the sun is out, stop and rest. Go no farther and seek</p><p>shade immediately!</p><p>Once you’re in the shade, continue to try to establish</p><p>communications with your support assets. They should know</p><p>where you are, how long you intend to be there, and the exact</p><p>time and date you planned to return. Be sure to communicate</p><p>any changes to your plans. There’s nothing more frustrating</p><p>to rescue teams than to be searching for someone who is not</p><p>where he’s supposed to be.</p><p>226</p><p>Sunburn</p><p>While in the shade, inventory the equipment and the survival</p><p>kit you have on hand.</p><p>Heat Acclimation</p><p>227</p><p>It takes approximately two weeks to fully acclimate to hot</p><p>environments. Your body will eventually adjust to the</p><p>following physiological changes:</p><p>• Sweat rate increases</p><p>• Sweat is more diluted</p><p>• Heart rate decreases</p><p>• Body temperature increases</p><p>Your body’s core temperature rises during exercise and hard</p><p>work in a hot environment. This causes your heart rate to</p><p>increase, your skin temperature to increase, and your sweat to</p><p>become more profuse. And this all causes your heart to have</p><p>to work harder. Your body pumps blood to the surface of your</p><p>skin to cool; it is pumped to the heart and muscles. As your</p><p>body heats up, it has to work harder to cool your blood and</p><p>keep your muscles working.</p><p>Your body also loses fluid when you sweat, and you can</p><p>easily become dehydrated. If you lose more than two percent</p><p>of your body weight through dehydration, you will start</p><p>losing your ability to perform physically.</p><p>It is VERY common to underestimate how much fluid you</p><p>lose when you sweat. Drink fluids early and often. Don’t wait</p><p>until you are thirsty to take a drink.</p><p>228</p><p>Desert landscape</p><p>Desert Survival Tips:</p><p>• Drink more water and fluids per hour than you think you</p><p>need (one liter per hour or more as needed during hard work</p><p>or exercise).</p><p>229</p><p>• Consume potassium-rich foods such as bananas, parsley,</p><p>dried apricots, dried milk, chocolate, various nuts (especially</p><p>almonds and pistachios), potatoes, bamboo shoots, avocados,</p><p>soybeans, and bran, Potassium is also present in sufficient</p><p>quantities in most fruits, vegetables, meat, and fish.</p><p>• Add salt to your diet to help your body store water more</p><p>efficiently.</p><p>• Cover your skin with light-colored, lightweight, loose long</p><p>sleeves and pants when appropriate.</p><p>• Wear a hat to keep the sun off of your head and face.</p><p>• Splash cool water on your head or wet your hat during</p><p>workouts to cool your core temperature.</p><p>• Wear sunglasses to protect your eyes.</p><p>• Avoid the hottest part of the day (10—4 PM) if possible.</p><p>Desert Recommended Gear</p><p>Your mission, mode of travel, and expected length of</p><p>operation will determine the equipment you will carry.</p><p>When traveling by vehicle—be it a Humvee, ATV, truck, or</p><p>Jeep—you have the space, so pack gear such as shovels,</p><p>picks, and heavy rope.</p><p>Every SEAL, every experienced operator who trains and</p><p>operates in the desert, will typically carry a well thought-out</p><p>survival or E&E (escape and evade) kit to suit their</p><p>230</p><p>operational and personal needs. They will learn to use it and</p><p>will practice with each item before a mission.</p><p>Below is a list of equipment often found in many survival and</p><p>E&E kits.</p><p>Trekking in Death Valley</p><p>231</p><p>Southwest Desert Survival Gear Checklist —by Tony</p><p>Nester</p><p>A quality survival kit is your life insurance policy during a</p><p>backcountry emergency. Your kit should take care of the “Big</p><p>5” survival priorities of shelter, water, fire, signaling, and</p><p>first-aid. I carry my own preselected items rather than using</p><p>commercial kits. Here’s a breakdown of my gear:</p><p>Knife—A knife is a critical survival tool, and I carry two</p><p>blades: a Mora knife, which holds a good edge and can take a</p><p>beating, plus a small, backup Cold Steel lockblade.</p><p>Fire Starters—Carry three, such as REI Stormproof matches,</p><p>a spark magnesium rod, and a lighter. Fire = Life in the wilds</p><p>under survival conditions, so carry these with you in your</p><p>pockets and become proficient at making fire under any</p><p>condition.</p><p>Tinder—Cotton balls smeared with Vaseline will practically</p><p>allow you to make fire underwater. Make a half-dozen at</p><p>232</p><p>home and place them in a film canister or an Altoid type</p><p>container.</p><p>Emergency Blanket—These have grommets and will enable</p><p>you to rig up a quickie shelter. An Army poncho works well</p><p>too. Avoid the worthless Mylar blankets, as these will shred</p><p>apart like tinsel in no time.</p><p>Water—Carry two to six quarts or more, depending on the</p><p>time of year and length of hike. I like Nalgene bottles, which</p><p>hold up to punishment on the trail. I also carry five gallons</p><p>per person per day minimum in my truck.</p><p>Electrolyte replacement powder or capsules.</p><p>Water Purification Tablets-I use either Potable Aqua iodine</p><p>or chlorine dioxide. Make sure to give it a taste test</p><p>beforehand and follow the manufacturer’s directions.</p><p>First Aid—A quality first-aid kit by either Adventure</p><p>Medical Kits or Atwater Carey is essential. Add an ACE</p><p>Wrap, Fastmelt Benadryl for insect bites, Imodium, and</p><p>ibuprofen, and you will be ahead of the game if injury befalls</p><p>you.</p><p>Signal Mirror—We have tested out glass signal mirrors in</p><p>the desert and gotten reflections from twenty-six miles away.</p><p>They are far safer, to you and the environment, than a risky</p><p>signal fire.</p><p>Duct Tape—Imagine what our ancestors would have</p><p>accomplished with this multiuse item. It’s good for</p><p>everything from patching up a torn pack to wrapping a blister</p><p>233</p><p>to fixing a damaged boot sole. Wrap a few passes around your</p><p>water bottle for quick access.</p><p>Flashlight—Get a quality LED headlamp for hands-free</p><p>work when rigging up an emergency shelter in the dark or</p><p>alerting searchers to your location.</p><p>Sunglasses/Sunscreen/Shemagh/Gloves/Brimmed</p><p>hat—Enough said!</p><p>Jerky/Snacks/Chow—Yeah, you can survive without snacks,</p><p>but it sure isn’t fun.</p><p>Lastly, don’t forget about that survival tool between your</p><p>ears, and remember to leave a travel plan with someone back</p><p>home so searchers know exactly where to look. That plan will</p><p>be your safety net in the event that you run into Murphy’s</p><p>Law on the trail.</p><p>Desert Vehicle Recommended Equipment List</p><p>Moving in the Desert</p><p>234</p><p>When you’re in the desert, learn to become nocturnal. Once</p><p>the sun goes down, begin your activities.</p><p>Your first priority is to construct a shelter. Consider the type</p><p>of shelter design you want to use, look the area over for</p><p>possible sources of water, and determine how much water you</p><p>have on hand. Do all of this from the shade of your temporary</p><p>shelter.</p><p>Use your space blanket, casualty blanket, Tyvek, or poncho</p><p>and some 550 cord to make a simple lean-to type of shelter. A</p><p>casualty blanket, which is basically a quality NASA-designed</p><p>space blanket, works especially well as shelter construction or</p><p>for sleeping. To build a shelter, simply secure one end of the</p><p>material to the ground using stakes or heavy stones, and angle</p><p>the other end of the material upward in a manner that protects</p><p>you from the sun.</p><p>Make the angled end no higher than four feet off the ground</p><p>and secure it to bushes, stakes, or rocks. Then, place five or</p><p>six pieces of light brush on the material and cover the entire</p><p>shelter with material once more. Use Tyvek or a casualty</p><p>blanket for the first layer of material and a space blanket as</p><p>the top layer with the fluorescent orange side up to act as an</p><p>emergency signal.</p><p>This type of “sandwich” shelter forms a dead air space</p><p>between you and the sun. The insulation keeps the shelter</p><p>cooler than a single-layered shelter. Construct this shelter in</p><p>the cool of the evening and not during the heat of the day.</p><p>235</p><p>Desert cave</p><p>236</p><p>Desert shelter</p><p>237</p><p>Vehicles</p><p>Traveling through the desert can be done successfully if a few</p><p>simple precautions are taken. Be sure the vehicle(s) are in</p><p>good working order, that fuel tanks and radiators are filled,</p><p>that the batteries are well charged, and that all engine belts are</p><p>in satisfactory condition. Also take a moment to inspect the</p><p>238</p><p>tires and make sure they are inflated properly, and do not</p><p>have abnormal wear spots.</p><p>Do not attempt to negotiate washes without first checking the</p><p>footing and clearances, as high centers can rupture the oil pan.</p><p>If you get stuck, do not spin the wheels in an attempt to gain</p><p>motion. Instead, apply power very slowly to prevent the</p><p>wheels from digging in. When driving in sand, traction can be</p><p>increased by partially deflating tires. Start, stop, and turn</p><p>gradually; sudden motions will cause the wheels to dig in. Be</p><p>sure to carry all tool and equipment requirements. (See the</p><p>recommended desert survival items listed in this chapter.)</p><p>Roadway signs indicate civilization. So, if you find a road and</p><p>it is safe to do so, stay on it.</p><p>If tactically safe, stay near your vehicle if it breaks down.</p><p>Raise the hood and trunk lid to indicate that “help is needed.”</p><p>If you leave the vehicle, leave a note for rescuers with the</p><p>time you left and the direction taken.</p><p>When not on the move, use any available shade or erect some</p><p>shade from tarps or other material to protect yourself from the</p><p>direct rays of the sun.</p><p>Know where you are at all times. When planning on entering</p><p>unfamiliar country, always thoroughly study a map</p><p>beforehand. Take special note of terrain features, the road</p><p>structure, the direction to the nearest habitation, the location</p><p>of water, and so on.</p><p>239</p><p>Upon arrival at your destination, look for landmarks and</p><p>orient yourself with the prominent ones. As you move</p><p>through the country, check your back trails often. Terrain</p><p>always looks different when you are coming at it from the</p><p>opposite direction.</p><p>Trekking</p><p>There are special rules and techniques for trekking in the</p><p>desert. By moving slowly and resting ten minutes every hour</p><p>or so, someone who is not injured and is in good physical</p><p>condition can cover fifteen to twenty miles per day—less</p><p>after becoming fatigued or suffering from lack of food or</p><p>water. In the hot desert, it’s best to travel in early morning or</p><p>late afternoon into the evening, in whatever shade is</p><p>available.</p><p>During your map study, select the easiest and safest route. Go</p><p>around obstacles, not over them. Instead of going up or down</p><p>steep slopes, zigzag to prevent undue exertion. Go around</p><p>gullies and canyons instead of through them. When trekking</p><p>with teammates, adjust the rate to the slowest member, who is</p><p>often the one carrying the most gear or the injured.</p><p>On breaks, sit down in the shade and prop your feet up (to</p><p>help reduce painful swelling), remove your shoes, and either</p><p>change your socks (only if you’re in the shade) or straighten</p><p>out the ones you are wearing to reduce the chance of</p><p>developing blisters.</p><p>If you get lost, sit down, survey the area, and take stock of the</p><p>situation. Do not sit or lie on the ground because, in sunlight,</p><p>the ground usually is thirty degrees F hotter than the air. Try</p><p>240</p><p>to remember the last time when you knew exactly where you</p><p>were. Decide on a course of action. It may be best to stay</p><p>where you are and let your teammates or support assets come</p><p>to you. This is especially true if you have access to water,</p><p>fuel, or, in winter, some means of shelter.</p><p>If you feel you can retrace your course, do so. If safe to do so,</p><p>mark your spot or leave a note before moving on. Look for</p><p>your tracks; you may be able to backtrack and find the way to</p><p>familiar ground. Be leery about taking shortcuts, as they may</p><p>cause more confusion. If possible, go to a high point and look</p><p>for distinguishable landmarks.</p><p>To avoid poisonous creatures, place your hands and feet only</p><p>where you can see.</p><p>Footwear for Desert Hiking—by Tony Nester</p><p>Which footwear you choose depends on the desert. Three of</p><p>our four deserts in North America are blanketed with cacti</p><p>and other flora that can Chihuahuan deserts, I only wear</p><p>lightweight leather boots. These allow me to avoid the spines</p><p>of cacti, agave, and other succulents that can pierce. Sandals</p><p>are out, except for walking around base camp at the end of the</p><p>day.</p><p>The desert can be an unforgiving landscape if you’re</p><p>unprepared with the proper footwear. Geronimo and his</p><p>Apache warriors had to mend their buckskin moccasin soles</p><p>every three days or 100 miles of travel!</p><p>241</p><p>I have worn the Original S.W.A.T. brand boots on all of my</p><p>desert treks and they have proven extremely reliable and</p><p>affordable. I have also had good luck with the Hi-Tec brand.</p><p>If I’m going hiking in the Great Basin Desert amidst</p><p>sagebrush then I would consider wearing lightweight hiking</p><p>shoes. I currently have a pair of Merrells that have held up</p><p>well.</p><p>With either boots or shoes, leather will hold up better than</p><p>Corduratype materials. Just remember to avoid black! I also</p><p>carry a small comb in my pack, which can be handy for lifting</p><p>out cactus and cholla spines in the boots rather than using my</p><p>fingers, especially necessary if you hike with your dog.</p><p>Signals</p><p>One of the most effective signals is a free—either a smoky</p><p>one during daytime or a bright one at night. The signal mirror</p><p>is also an excellent device for attracting attention, particularly</p><p>aircraft. On a clear day, ground signals can be visible for up</p><p>to ten miles; signals to aircraft can be seen at even greater</p><p>distances.</p><p>If you decide to stay where you are and wait for rescue, it’s a</p><p>good idea to establish some type of ground-to-air signal, such</p><p>as a large “X,” “SOS,” or the word “HELP.” Use any</p><p>available material to make this display (rocks, brush,</p><p>clothing). It can even be scraped into the ground. The</p><p>important thing is to change the terrain and attract attention to</p><p>your location.</p><p>242</p><p>Signal sounds tend to be the least effective. Three sounds</p><p>universally signifies “distress.” A “thunder” whistle is</p><p>recommended as an easy way to make loud noise. If you have</p><p>a firearm, and it is tactically safe to do so, shoot once, wait</p><p>ten seconds, then fire twice more, about five seconds apart.</p><p>The first sound will hopefully attract attention, and the second</p><p>and third will give direction.</p><p>243</p><p>Desert terrain</p><p>Heat Disorders</p><p>Sunburn</p><p>Redness and pain. In severe cases—swelling of skin, blisters,</p><p>fever, headaches. Use ointments on mild sunburns. If blisters</p><p>appear, do not break them. If breakage occurs, apply dry</p><p>sterile dressing.</p><p>Heat Cramps</p><p>These are painful spasms that usually occur in the muscles of</p><p>your legs and abdomen. Sometimes they’re accompanied by</p><p>heavy sweating. Apply firm pressure on cramping muscles, or</p><p>gently massage to relieve the spasms. Take sips of salt water</p><p>(one teaspoon per glass) every fifteen minutes for one hour;</p><p>better yet, take electrolytes.</p><p>Heat Exhaustion</p><p>Characterized by heavy sweating, weakness, and dizziness.</p><p>The skin will feel cold, pale, and clammy. Pulse is usually</p><p>steady and temperature normal. Sometimes accompanied by</p><p>fainting and vomiting. Get the victim out of the sun, lie victim</p><p>down, loosen clothing, apply cool wet cloths, and fan.</p><p>Administer sips of salt water (one teaspoon per glass) every</p><p>fifteen minutes for one hour or take electrolytes. If vomiting,</p><p>do not give fluids or anything by mouth.</p><p>Heat Stroke</p><p>244</p><p>Symptoms include a body temperature of 106 degrees F or</p><p>higher; hot, red, dry skin; rapid and strong pulse; and possible</p><p>unconsciousness. Heat stroke should be considered a severe</p><p>medical emergency. Seek medical attention ASAP, as delay</p><p>can be fatal. Move victim into a cooler environment, reduce</p><p>body temperature with iced bath or sponging.</p><p>Cactus</p><p>Water</p><p>245</p><p>Do not ration water. Rationing water at high temperatures can</p><p>be an invitation to disaster, because small amounts will not</p><p>prevent dehydration. In the hot desert, a person needs about a</p><p>gallon of water a day. Loss of efficiency and collapse always</p><p>follows severe dehydration. It is the water</p><p>in your body that</p><p>maintains life—not the water in your water containers.</p><p>If you drink more water than you actually need, it will pass in</p><p>the form of urine. When you urinate, check the color and</p><p>amount. Dark-colored urine indicates you need to increase</p><p>your water intake. Many survival experts recommend</p><p>drinking at least one quart of water for every two lost. But</p><p>less fluid will not result in less sweat. In extreme heat, you</p><p>may not even feel yourself perspire because the sweat</p><p>evaporates so quickly.</p><p>Ration Sweat—Not Water</p><p>Keep your clothing on, including your shirt and hat, because</p><p>it will help slow sweat evaporation and prolong cooling. It</p><p>also keeps out the hot desert air and reflects the heat of the</p><p>sun.</p><p>When day movement is necessary, travel slowly and steadily.</p><p>Keep your mouth closed and breathe through your nose to</p><p>reduce water loss and drying of mucous membranes. Avoid</p><p>conversation for the same reasons.</p><p>Alcohol in any form is to be avoided, as it will accelerate</p><p>dehydration. Food intake should be kept to a minimum if</p><p>sufficient water is not available.</p><p>Dehydration</p><p>246</p><p>Body temperature in a healthy person can be raised to the</p><p>danger point by either absorbing heat or generating it. Heat</p><p>can be absorbed from the ground, by reflection, or direct</p><p>contact. Work or exercise will also increase body heat. An</p><p>increase in body temperature of six to eight degrees above</p><p>normal (98.6F) for any extended period can cause death.</p><p>The body gets rid of excess heat and attempts to keep the</p><p>temperature normal by sweating, but sweating causes the</p><p>body to lose water and dehydration results. This water must</p><p>be replaced.</p><p>Drink cool or warm water as fast as you want, but cold water</p><p>may cause distress and cramps.</p><p>It’s important to recognize the initial symptoms of</p><p>dehydration. These include thirst and discomfort, slow</p><p>motion, no appetite, and, later, nausea, drowsiness, and high</p><p>temperatures. If dehydration reaches six to ten percent,</p><p>symptoms may include dizziness, headaches, dry mouth,</p><p>difficulty in breathing, tingling in arms and legs, bluish color,</p><p>indistinct speech, and, finally, an inability to walk.</p><p>Thirst is not an accurate indicator of the amount of water that</p><p>your body needs. If you drink only enough to satisfy your</p><p>thirst, you can still dehydrate. Drink plenty of water,</p><p>especially at meal times and during the cooler early morning</p><p>hours. A pebble or small coin placed in the mouth will help to</p><p>alleviate the sensation of thirst, but it is obviously not a</p><p>substitute for water and will not aid in keeping your body</p><p>temperature normal.</p><p>Water Procurement in the Desert</p><p>247</p><p>If you’re near water, remain there and signal for rescuers. If</p><p>water is not immediately available, look for it by following</p><p>these leads:</p><p>• Look for desert trails—following them may lead to water</p><p>or civilization, particularly if several such trails join and point</p><p>toward a specific location.</p><p>• Look for flocks of birds—they sometimes circle over</p><p>water holes. Listen for their chirping in the morning and</p><p>evening, and you may be able to locate their watering spot.</p><p>Pigeons or doves only exist near clear water.</p><p>• Look for animal tracks—they sometimes lead to water.</p><p>• Look for plants that only grow near water—cottonwoods,</p><p>sycamores, willows, hackberry, salt cedar, cattails, and arrow</p><p>weed. You may have to dig to find this water.</p><p>• Keep on the lookout for windmills and water tanks built</p><p>by ranchers.</p><p>• An old Bedouin trick is to turn over half-buried stones in</p><p>the desert just before sun up. Their coolness causes dew to</p><p>form on their surface.</p><p>• Desert grass will also form dew in the predawn. It can be</p><p>soaked up with a cloth and wrung out into a container.</p><p>• Where sand dunes meet the sea, digging above the high</p><p>tide mark might reveal a thin layer of fresh water sitting atop</p><p>a heavier layer of salt water.</p><p>248</p><p>• Flies and mosquitoes indicate a water source.</p><p>• Bees fly in a straight line to and from water up to 1,000</p><p>meters away.</p><p>• Water seepage in canyons, small pockets of water in</p><p>sandstone rock formations, and digs at the base of rocks and</p><p>mountains can produce water.</p><p>Methods of Purifying Water</p><p>Even contaminated water has its uses. It can be used to soak</p><p>your clothing and reduce water loss from perspiration.</p><p>Dirty water should be filtered through several layers of cloth</p><p>or allowed to settle. This does not purify the water, even</p><p>though it may look clean. Purification to kill germs must be</p><p>done by one of the following methods:</p><p>Boiling is the safest of available water disinfection methods.</p><p>It kills Giardia, Cryptosporidium, bacteria, and viruses. At</p><p>sea level, boiling water for one minute effectively eliminates</p><p>these hazards, although vigorous boiling for two to five</p><p>minutes is generally recommended for Crypto sporidium. At</p><p>higher elevations, water boils at lower temperatures and</p><p>longer boiling times should be observed (e.g., fifteen minutes</p><p>at 10,000 feet).</p><p>Chemical Disinfection, usually with either chlorine or</p><p>iodine, is another method of preventing infection from</p><p>Giardia and most other microorganisms. Cryptosporidium</p><p>parasites are highly resistant to most chemical disinfectants,</p><p>however, and can only be neutralized by boiling or filtration.</p><p>249</p><p>The table below lists the various disinfectants available and</p><p>the recommended dosage per quart of water. The use of</p><p>saturated iodine (made by dissolving iodine crystals in water)</p><p>is not recommended because it does not kill all of the Giardia</p><p>organisms in cold water. None of the below-listed</p><p>disinfectants are considered to be effective against Crypto</p><p>sporidium.</p><p>WATER DISINFECTION METHODS</p><p>When using tablets, the waiting time begins after the tablets</p><p>are dissolved. *Use 4 drops if water is cloudy or turbid</p><p>Using Bleach to Purify Water</p><p>Bleach is an oxidant, and it will react with and kill pretty</p><p>much any microscopic cellular life (including viruses) that it</p><p>comes in contact with. When it reacts, the bleach is actually</p><p>consumed in the process.</p><p>Because killing microorganisms also consumes the bleach,</p><p>the scent test tells you whether or not there’s anything left to</p><p>kill. If there’s no chlorine odor, then all of the bleach was</p><p>used up, meaning there could still be living organisms. If</p><p>there is a chlorine odor after thirty minutes, it tells you that all</p><p>250</p><p>of the bacteria and viruses are dead, and the bleach has done</p><p>its job.</p><p>Most laundry bleaches have five and one-half percent Sodium</p><p>hypochlorite, a suitable purification chemical for water.</p><p>Bleach in a suitable container with an eyedropper dispenser</p><p>makes a nice addition to any survival kit. Do not use</p><p>powdered, scented, or other non-pure bleaches.</p><p>Prior to adding the bleach, remove all suspended material by</p><p>filtration through a cotton cloth or by simply allowing</p><p>sediment to settle to the bottom.</p><p>Add eight drops of bleach per gallon of water (or two drops</p><p>per quart). If the water has already been filtered, shake it up</p><p>for even dispersal of the bleach, and wait fifteen minutes. If it</p><p>has sediment at the bottom, don’t shake it up. Instead, allow</p><p>the treated water to stand for thirty minutes.</p><p>Properly treated water should have a very slight chlorine</p><p>odor. If you can’t smell chlorine, repeat the dosage and allow</p><p>the water to stand another fifteen minutes.</p><p>For cloudy, green, or really foul water (i.e.: swamp water),</p><p>start with sixteen drops of bleach per gallon of water (or four</p><p>drops per quart). As detailed above, smell the water. If there’s</p><p>a faint odor of chlorine, the water is drinkable. If not, then</p><p>repeat the treatment.</p><p>Treating Larger Quantities of Water</p><p>• A teaspoon of bleach will treat about 7 ½ gallons of clear</p><p>water or four gallons of dirty water.</p><p>251</p><p>• A tablespoon of bleach will treat about twenty gallons of</p><p>clear water or about ten gallons of dirty water.</p><p>• A quarter cup of bleach treats about ninety gallons of clear</p><p>water or forty-five gallons of dirty water.</p><p>Warning—Water from Natural Sources</p><p>During the past several years, increasing numbers of people</p><p>have been stricken with waterborne diseases due to</p><p>drinking</p><p>water straight from natural sources—streams, springs ponds,</p><p>or lakes. Even though the water appears to be sparkling clean</p><p>and pure, it may contain microorganisms which cause disease.</p><p>Two organisms found in many water sources are Giardia</p><p>lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum. These parasites have</p><p>been found in many wild and domestic animals and can be</p><p>present even in very remote areas with no sign of human life.</p><p>These organisms are transferred between animals and humans</p><p>by means of excreted fecal material.</p><p>Drinking water containing these parasites can cause</p><p>Giardiasis or Cryptosporidiosis. Both are severe</p><p>gastrointestinal disorders, which can result in diarrhea,</p><p>headache, abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, and fever.</p><p>People with degraded immune systems should be aware that a</p><p>Cryptosporidium infection can be life-threatening.</p><p>To prevent infection from Giardia or Cryptosporidium, do</p><p>not drink naturally occurring water before you disinfect it.</p><p>Either drink the water you carry in or disinfect all water from</p><p>natural sources before drinking.</p><p>252</p><p>The minimum water consumption rate is two gallons a day</p><p>per person in the 110-to 120-degree summer temperatures. In</p><p>such extreme heat, I’d say that survival time without water</p><p>would be limited to around two days, maybe less, depending</p><p>on the variables mentioned above.</p><p>When it comes to water sources, don’t assume that the creek,</p><p>spring, or water hole you noticed on the map is going to even</p><p>exist, especially during a season of drought. Talk to the folks</p><p>who are out on the land all the time— the locals in the</p><p>area—and find out what the water conditions are really like in</p><p>the backcountry.</p><p>On an extended desert trip, and certainly in a survival</p><p>situation, it’s important to know how to locate water.</p><p>Being able to read the nuances of the land is a skill of visual</p><p>acuity. You’re searching for subtle clues written across the</p><p>terrain that may indicate water. This is a skill that comes with</p><p>experience.</p><p>Places to Look for Water</p><p>• Shady areas at the base of cliffs</p><p>• Rock pockets and depressions</p><p>• Tree cavities and hollows</p><p>• Undercut banks in dry riverbeds</p><p>253</p><p>• Where insect life abounds</p><p>• Animal tracks and bird signs</p><p>• Where vegetation abounds: willows, palm trees, and</p><p>cottonwood trees are water-loving trees found in proximity to</p><p>either surface or subterranean water.</p><p>Remember, a hike to a suspected water source is going to cost</p><p>you, in terms of your own precious sweat, so staying put</p><p>might be a better option if rescuers are on their way.</p><p>Hyponatremia or Water Poisoning</p><p>When you’re sucking up quarts of water each hour in the</p><p>intense heat, you have to account for lost electrolytes. Most</p><p>people are familiar with the dangers of heat exhaustion but</p><p>not familiar with hyponatremia, which results when you are</p><p>technically hydrated but essentially flushing the electrolytes</p><p>from your system every time you urinate. This is something</p><p>that afflicts many novice desert trekkers.</p><p>For every thirty minutes of activity in the intense heat, take a</p><p>shade break, rehydrate, and get in some type of electrolyte</p><p>replacement.</p><p>The Problem with Solar Stills—by Tony Nester</p><p>In my opinion, solar stills are not a good way to procure water</p><p>in the desert.</p><p>On every desert survival course, we construct a solar still just</p><p>to show the futility of this method. After digging a</p><p>254</p><p>three-foot-deep hole that is three feet in diameter (and we all</p><p>carry shovels in our packs), we line the pit with succulent,</p><p>nontoxic plants (grasses, cacti, and so on) to boost the output,</p><p>place a cup in the bottom, and then seal it up with an inverted</p><p>six-foot by six-foot sheet of clear plastic. When possible, we</p><p>construct the still in the damp soil of an arroyo or canyon</p><p>floor that has recently seen rain. The next day, after the still</p><p>has had twenty-four hours to work in the sun, we pull back</p><p>the plastic cover and voila!—there’s about a half quart of</p><p>clear fluid! Wow! Then we remember back to the previous</p><p>day when we burned off a gallon of sweat making the still.</p><p>The single best method I know for staying hydrated in the</p><p>desert is to be prepared and carry water with you.</p><p>The question often arises, “If I run out of water, should I push</p><p>on in search of more or should I stay put and go without</p><p>water?” There will be a tremendous physiological cost if you</p><p>tax your heat-stressed body further by searching for water,</p><p>especially during the peak hours between 10 AM to 4 PM.</p><p>If you finish your water, it very well might make sense to</p><p>hole up in the shade like a coyote, all the while staying</p><p>clothed to reduce evaporative sweat loss, and traveling, if</p><p>necessary, only during the cooler hours of the morning or</p><p>evening—if at all. There have been survivors lost in the</p><p>desert, without water, who have endured up to two days in</p><p>triple-digit heat by doing the above. There have also been</p><p>those who perished from heat stroke in three to four hours</p><p>while hiking in search of water. You really have to weigh the</p><p>situation at hand to determine if staying put or hiking on is</p><p>required. In most cases you will want to stay put to extend</p><p>your survival time.</p><p>255</p><p>(For more about water, see Chapter 8, page 131.)</p><p>El Centro, Calif—Water is the most vital resource for</p><p>surviving in the desert. Students in Desert Environmental</p><p>Survival Training (DEST) use a water procurement</p><p>method of evaporation to extract drinkable water from</p><p>saltwater. The saltwater in the hole evaporates leaving the</p><p>salt at the bottom, but with a plastic cover over the hole,</p><p>the water has nowhere to go and drops back down into the</p><p>jar as potable water.</p><p>256</p><p>Desert Food</p><p>If you don’t have enough water, you shouldn’t be eating.</p><p>When your body processes food into waste, fluids from your</p><p>body are used. So, if you don’t have enough water in you, you</p><p>can actually speed up dehydration by eating. Most people can</p><p>go for significant periods of time without eating. Water is</p><p>your primary concern in the desert—not food.</p><p>Edible Plants—All cactus fruits are safe to eat, but other</p><p>plants and legumes (bean-bearing plants) can be poisonous</p><p>depending on the season and habitat. (There are more than</p><p>700 poisonous plants in the United States and Canada alone.)</p><p>The best advice is that, unless you’re an expert on plants in a</p><p>particular area, don’t consume them. Remember that you</p><p>must have water, but you can go without food for days</p><p>without harmful effects.</p><p>In a survival situation, where use of strange plants for food is</p><p>necessary, follow these rules:</p><p>* Avoid plants with milky sap.</p><p>* Avoid all red beans.</p><p>* If possible, boil plants that are questionable.</p><p>* To test a cooked plant, hold a small quantity in your mouth</p><p>for a few moments. If the taste is disagreeable (very bitter,</p><p>nauseating, burning), don’t eat it.</p><p>257</p><p>258</p><p>Prickly pear cactus</p><p>259</p><p>260</p><p>Yucca</p><p>Edible Plants in the Southwest—by Tony Nester</p><p>There are wild plants that are truly “palatable” (these were the</p><p>good-tasting staples used by native cultures) and then there</p><p>are the “edible” plants (these were survival foods used in lean</p><p>times and that have a considerable gag factor).</p><p>In the southwestern United States, the Hopi Indians have</p><p>identified 150 plants, of which roughly twenty-nine are</p><p>suitable for eating, and another forty can serve some</p><p>medicinal purpose.</p><p>When it comes to harvesting wild plants, be certain you know</p><p>what you are picking and putting in your mouth.</p><p>The fishhook barrel (Ferocactus wislizenii) contains water,</p><p>but I would hardly call the nasty fluid extracted from its</p><p>innards “water.” It’s high in alkaloids and has a considerable</p><p>gag factor, and there are four other barrel cacti that are toxic.</p><p>The few times I have tried choking down barrel cactus fluid,</p><p>it made my stomach churn like a cement mixer and required a</p><p>meditative concentration not to regurgitate.</p><p>Piñon Pine Nuts (Pinus edulis)—During a good fall season,</p><p>the pinon pine can yield a significant amount of protein-rich</p><p>nuts. Whether you roast them or eat them raw, you will want</p><p>to remove the delicate shell to liberate the sweet meat</p><p>inside.</p><p>One study found that a single pound of pine nuts will yield</p><p>3,000 calories, so this is a very worthwhile food source.</p><p>261</p><p>Prickly Pear (Opuntia spp.)—The bright green, spineless pads</p><p>are collected in the spring and sautéed, boiled, or steamed. I</p><p>like to gather them when they are the size of a silver dollar, as</p><p>larger ones become too stringy. The red fruits in late summer</p><p>can be collected once the tiny stickers or glochids are</p><p>removed by peeling the skin off or lightly charring the fruits</p><p>for a few minutes in the hot coals of a campfire. These fruits</p><p>are sweet but heavy with seeds. For preserving the fruits, cut</p><p>them in half and dry in the sun over a few days to make</p><p>cactus fruit jerky.</p><p>Yucca (Yucca baccata)—The large fruits from banana yuccas</p><p>can be collected when ripe in late summer and roasted on</p><p>coals for an hour. The modern-day forager can simply wrap</p><p>them in foil to bake in a conventional oven at 400 degrees</p><p>until cooked through like a potato. If it tastes like you’re</p><p>eating a bar of soap, then you collected the fruits too early in</p><p>the season.</p><p>Pine Needle Tea—superhigh in vitamin C, this tea was used</p><p>by the mountain men to treat scurvy. Simmer a handful of</p><p>diced, green needles in a cup of water for twenty minutes. Do</p><p>not boil as that will destroy the vitamin content. This tea can</p><p>taste like pine sap.</p><p>Insects—Generally you can eat bugs. Do not eat scorpions,</p><p>centipedes, or brightly colored insects.</p><p>Spiders—Avoid eating any kind of spider.</p><p>Snakes—Snakes can provide a filing meal. The sheer amount</p><p>of bones to sort through in a snake makes for a lengthy meal,</p><p>however. Trying to kill a snake is a last-ditch survival effort</p><p>262</p><p>and one that I don’t recommend. Food is not a short-term</p><p>survival priority and many have gone thirty to forty days</p><p>without food in the desert.</p><p>It’s non-venomous snakes that a survivor would want to</p><p>ideally procure. This is best done with what I call the Grady</p><p>Gaston Method. Grady was a member of a B-24 bomber in</p><p>WWII that crashed in Australia after returning from a</p><p>bombing run against the Japanese in New Guinea. He</p><p>survived more than 130 days, most of it solo, while living on</p><p>snake meat that he obtained by hurling large rocks on the</p><p>creatures. By the way, he didn’t have the means to make fire,</p><p>so he consumed these raw! In the end, it was his sheer</p><p>willpower, sense of optimism, and serpentine diet that</p><p>enabled him to endure one of the most epic tales of survival in</p><p>recent times.</p><p>Beware of rattlesnakes, as they can still bite you after they’re</p><p>dead due to a reflexive action of the nervous system. Lopping</p><p>the head off, burying it, and then skinning and cleaning the</p><p>snake are the recommended methods. Once skinned and</p><p>cleaned, the meat can be boiled up in a stew with any other</p><p>tasty tidbits or edible plants, or placed on sticks and cooked</p><p>shish kebab style over the coals.</p><p>263</p><p>Pine needles</p><p>264</p><p>265</p><p>Cricket</p><p>Timber rattlesnake</p><p>266</p><p>267</p><p>Brown recluse spider</p><p>Black widow spider</p><p>Venomous Creatures</p><p>268</p><p>Carefully inspect all clothing and bedding before use,</p><p>especially items that have been on or near the ground during</p><p>the night. Dampness attracts these creatures. During summer</p><p>evenings, scorpions travel over the desert floor and up the</p><p>branches of trees and bushes looking for food. Bedding on the</p><p>ground will provide them a hiding place toward morning.</p><p>Spiders—Deserts have many kinds of spiders, but most of</p><p>them aren’t venomous. The two to watch out for are the</p><p>brown recluse and black widow.</p><p>Brown recluses are light brown, about a quarter inch in</p><p>length, and have a violin-shaped marking on the head and</p><p>back. They are most active at night. If you’re bitten by a</p><p>recluse and don’t get medical attention, it could be very</p><p>serious. The bite causes severe tissue destruction that may</p><p>take weeks to months heal. In extreme cases, the bite can be</p><p>fatal.</p><p>The female black widow spider is the most poisonous spider</p><p>in North America. It is easy to recognize) by the red hourglass</p><p>shape on the underneath part of her abdomen. She has a shiny</p><p>black body with various types of red markings on the top,</p><p>depending on the species. There are about five species of</p><p>black widow spiders in North America. They are usually</p><p>found in the dark corners of sheds and outbuildings, under</p><p>logs, and in rock piles. Will bite if provoked. The bite can be</p><p>dangerous but is seldom fatal. Pain spreads throughout the</p><p>body, accompanied by headache, dizziness, and nausea.</p><p>Extremities become cramped, the abdomen becomes rigid,</p><p>pupils dilate, and spasms may occur after several hours.</p><p>269</p><p>Lizards—There are two that are venomous—the Mexican</p><p>beaded lizard and the Gila monster. The Mexican Beaded is</p><p>only found in the deserts of Mexico and Guatemala. Gilas are</p><p>found in the Sonoran Desert of the United States and northern</p><p>Mexico.</p><p>The Mexican Beaded has white to yellow spots and stripes on</p><p>round, raised scales and is about a foot long. Gilas can be as</p><p>large as two feet and have round, raised scales. They’re short,</p><p>stout, and have a thick tail. While both are venomous, neither</p><p>is considered fatal.</p><p>Treatment for Bites and Stings:</p><p>• Seek shade.</p><p>• Sit down and try not to move the affected limb.</p><p>• Wash the bite with soap and water.</p><p>• Elevate the affected area above your heart level.</p><p>• Do not lance the bite or attempt to suck out the venom.</p><p>• Remove any jewelry near the bite and loosen tight</p><p>clothing.</p><p>• Tie a light constricting band around the affected body part</p><p>about three inches above the point of contact. Keep it loose</p><p>enough to fit a finger between the band and your skin (to</p><p>prevent it from becoming a tourniquet).</p><p>270</p><p>Honeybees—There are more deaths annually in the U.S. from</p><p>honeybee stings than from all other poisonous creatures</p><p>combined. Honeybee stingers are barbed at the tip and will</p><p>remain in the victim. The venom sacs are torn from the bee’s</p><p>body and remain attached to the stinger. Don’t try to pull out</p><p>stingers, as pinching them injects additional venom. Scrape</p><p>stingers out with a knife or other thin edge.</p><p>Gila monster</p><p>271</p><p>Non-venomous lizard</p><p>272</p><p>Bee</p><p>273</p><p>274</p><p>Scorpion</p><p>Africanized Honey Bees or “Killer Bees”—They resemble</p><p>U.S. and common European honeybees, but differ in</p><p>temperament. Africanized honey bees defend their colonies</p><p>more vigorously and in greater numbers. They may respond</p><p>with minimal or no provocation, but their venom is no more</p><p>harmful than that of domestic honeybees. If you see a lot of</p><p>bees flying in and out of a small opening, a nest is probably</p><p>located inside. The best strategy is to leave them alone and do</p><p>not disturb them. If attacked, run away as fast as you can. If</p><p>far from shelter, try running through tall brush. This will</p><p>confuse and slow them while you make your way out of the</p><p>area. Do not flail or attempt to swat the bees. Bees target your</p><p>head and eyes; therefore, try to cover your head as much as</p><p>possible without slowing your progress. If someone else is</p><p>stung by honeybees, help them out of the area as quickly as</p><p>possible.</p><p>Rock or Bark Scorpion—These are small, very slim, and</p><p>light straw colored. The stinger in the tip of the tail injects a</p><p>minute amount of powerful venom. There will be pain at the</p><p>site, numbness, restlessness, fever, fast pulse, and breathing</p><p>difficulty. The sting can be fatal.</p><p>If bitten or stung:</p><p>• Sit down in the shade and relax.</p><p>• Wash the area with soap and water.</p><p>• Apply a cool compress to the bite or sting.</p><p>275</p><p>• Elevate the area above your heart level.</p><p>• Take an over-the-counter pain reliever.</p><p>• Tie a light constricting band around the affected body part</p><p>about three inches above the point of contact. Use a</p><p>bandanna, a shoestring, some gauze, or anything else that</p><p>isn’t too heavy. Again, it should be loose enough to get a</p><p>finger between your skin and the wrap.</p><p>Rattlesnakes—In the desert, rattlesnakes are generally sandy</p><p>colored with a broad arrow-shaped head, blunt tipped-up</p><p>nose, and rattles on the tail. Look for them mostly where</p><p>food, water, and protection are available— around abandoned</p><p>structures,</p><p>irrigation ditches, water holes, brush, and rock</p><p>piles. They don’t always warn by rattling, nor do they always</p><p>strike if someone is close. Usually they are not aggressive and</p><p>will not “chase” people. If you are bitten, the strike results in</p><p>immediate pain accompanied by swelling. The venom</p><p>primarily causes local and internal tissue destruction and</p><p>nerve damage. If traveling in areas where rattlers may be</p><p>found, wear protective footgear and watch where you put</p><p>your hands and feet. The general rule of thumb is if you hear</p><p>one, stop and try to locate it, then move slowly away from the</p><p>sound and leave it alone. Most strikes occur when people</p><p>attempt to catch, kill, or play with the snake.</p><p>Coral Snakes—Rarely more than twenty inches long with a</p><p>small blunt, black head, and tapering tail. A very attractive</p><p>snake with wide red and black bands, separated by narrower</p><p>yellow or white bands that completely encircle the snake.</p><p>There are many nonpoisonous species that resemble the coral</p><p>snake. Remember “if red (band) touches yellow—kill a</p><p>276</p><p>fellow; if red touches blackvenom lack.” They’re sometimes</p><p>seen in the day in spring (March, April, and May) and are</p><p>nocturnal during the summer. They live under objects, in</p><p>burrows, and are shy and timid. Corals must chew rather than</p><p>strike to introduce venom, but due to the very small mouth are</p><p>unable to bite any but the smallest extremities. They attack</p><p>only under severe provocation or accidental contact. Their</p><p>venom affects the nervous system, causing failure of the heart</p><p>and respiratory muscles.</p><p>Treatment of Poisonous Snakebites</p><p>• Elevate the limb that has been bitten and immobilize it.</p><p>• Apply a light constricting band above the bite location (be</p><p>able to insert two fingers under band). Don’t release the band</p><p>unless it becomes too tight from swelling.</p><p>• Identify the snake and relate this information to the</p><p>medical responders.</p><p>Flash Floods—by Tony Nester</p><p>The key to avoiding an intimate encounter with a flash flood</p><p>is to plan ahead so you don’t get caught in one in the first</p><p>place. Most research indicates that eighty percent of flash</p><p>floods happen between noon and 8 PM during the monsoon</p><p>seasons. Try to avoid narrow canyons during this time</p><p>altogether or, if you must hike in them, check the weather</p><p>first and then make movement during the early morning hours</p><p>before the afternoon thermals reel in the moisture and</p><p>thunderheads.</p><p>277</p><p>Flash floods, and the thunderstorms that cause them, are</p><p>deceiving. You may be trekking in a canyon with blue skies</p><p>above while there’s a storm cell ten miles up canyon dumping</p><p>its energy. Now you have not only a huge wall (five-plus feet</p><p>or higher) of water headed your way, but also silt, rocks, logs,</p><p>and other debris that has built in the canyon since the last</p><p>rainfall, which could have been years or even decades ago. I</p><p>have seen van-sized boulders tumbling down canyons like</p><p>marbles during flash floods. Flash floods are the number one</p><p>weather-related killer of people in the desert the world over.</p><p>278</p><p>Coral snake</p><p>A Short Survival Exercise with SERE/CSAR—by Tony</p><p>Nester</p><p>It was nearing 106 degrees F at noon when we headed out for</p><p>an E&E exercise in the Arizona desert. This was the final</p><p>phase of a desert training course that I was conducting for a</p><p>group of SERE and CSAR personnel.</p><p>A route five miles ahead was selected and the UTM</p><p>coordinates were locked in on everyone’s GPS units. We</p><p>would split into two teams and rendezvous at a lone rock</p><p>pinnacle at the five-mile mark, while each team attempted to</p><p>reduce signs of their passage with evasion shelters previously</p><p>taught.</p><p>The men were carrying their normal packs and combat vests,</p><p>which together came to around sixty-five pounds with water</p><p>(four liters each). Food rations consisted of three survival bars</p><p>a day (1,200 calories total a day).</p><p>As we began, we were all silently grateful the sky was</p><p>growing overcast and cooling things down as an impending</p><p>storm to the south was brewing.</p><p>After resting, rehydrating, and checking everyone for</p><p>heat-related injuries, we pushed on another three miles. The</p><p>storm that was at our backs on the trek in was now in full</p><p>force behind us and brought in 40 MPH winds that created a</p><p>sandstorm. Out came the goggles and shemaghs. With little</p><p>respite from the wind and with the swirling sand obscuring</p><p>distant landmarks, we navigated in short increments from one</p><p>279</p><p>boulder outcropping to another, resting every mile or so.</p><p>During rest breaks, out came the rations and the</p><p>sodium-replacement drinks (premixed into the water earlier).</p><p>Lightning was in the distance as we pushed on, and each man</p><p>was told to spread out thirty feet from the next person in</p><p>observance of lightning safety.</p><p>By 4 pm, our destination was reached and we holed up in a</p><p>large boulder-strewn region out of the wind. Water was</p><p>procured from nearby tinajas or sandstone depressions in a</p><p>nearby arroyo. A test shelter in the ground was dug and</p><p>covered with a Mylar blanket. Everyone slept that night near</p><p>or under a rock overhang in the boulders. The storm cleared</p><p>out near sundown and the wind calmed. Night time temps</p><p>were in the midforties. Any colder and a fire would have been</p><p>necessary—a difficult prospect in so barren a region.</p><p>One student awoke to find a large rattlesnake on the other</p><p>side of his pack. His startled demeanor scared the snake away.</p><p>It was time to head back, debrief on the survival gear tested,</p><p>and wash the sand out of our ears. Not a cloud in the sky</p><p>today—it’s going to be a furnace again!</p><p>Lessons Learned</p><p>Combat vests were shed after two miles and stowed in the</p><p>rucksacks. Detailed water consumption records were kept and</p><p>each man went through approximately six liters during</p><p>daylight hours of activity. The allotted food rations were</p><p>sufficient for the two-day time frame, but everyone noticed</p><p>slight gastrointestinal stress after the first day of consuming</p><p>only survival rations and water.</p><p>280</p><p>Footwear was a definite weak link, with each man suffering</p><p>considerable blisters and bruised soles from inadequate</p><p>(issued) boots. Desert footwear for this group needs to be</p><p>improved. Danner Desert boots or Original S.W.A.T. boots,</p><p>used by our instructor cadre with good results over the years,</p><p>were recommended.</p><p>The Mylar-type blankets were also inadequate and shredded</p><p>after only a few hours’ use. An Emergency Blanket, poncho</p><p>liner, or camo poncho would be far more useful and durable</p><p>enough to withstand the repeated rigors of survival on the</p><p>move while not adding significant weight.</p><p>Other questions to consider: How will my current issued gear</p><p>hold up if I have to escape and evade over rough terrain for a</p><p>few days or more? Have you tested, under actual field</p><p>conditions, the limitations of the survival items that you are</p><p>issued? How far can you run/hike in the sand with a full ruc</p><p>before needing to shed gear, and what essential gear can you</p><p>absolutely NOT live without for survival in the desert? Do</p><p>you know some of the basic techniques for covering your</p><p>tracks and gaining distance from pursuers? Do you know how</p><p>to make a smokeless, concealed fire? Have you lived</p><p>exclusively on your issued survival rations in the field before</p><p>to test out their usefulness in maintaining? How does your</p><p>present footwear hold up over rough, rocky terrain?</p><p>Survival in the Outback</p><p>In April 2006, Mark Clifford, a farm manager on a remote</p><p>property in Australia’s Northern Territory, thought he was</p><p>seeing a walking skeleton coming toward him. It turned out to</p><p>281</p><p>be a 35-year-old man named Ricky Megee, who had been lost</p><p>in the outback for an incredible ten weeks.</p><p>Apparently drugged and left for dead by a hitchhiker he’d</p><p>picked up, Megee, who had nothing but the clothes on his</p><p>back, survived by staying close to a dam and eating leeches,</p><p>grasshoppers, and frogs.</p><p>While police and the public had doubts about the story</p><p>because of Megee’s previous minor drug convictions, there’s</p><p>no question that he had been lost in the outback, for whatever</p><p>reason, and was damn lucky to have survived.</p><p>Wandering for weeks,</p><p>he eventually found a water hole,</p><p>where he spent the remainder of his time. Baked in the day</p><p>and frozen at night, he survived at first by eating frogs.</p><p>“Meat of any description was the substance I craved,” Megee</p><p>explained later. “I was prepared to do whatever was required.</p><p>But without that opportunity of a carnivorous feast always</p><p>available to me, I sure ate a lot of vegetation. Edible plants</p><p>didn’t stand a chance with me around. “Crickets were the first</p><p>really crunchy things that I tried, but definitely not the last.”</p><p>According to Megee, they made a nice change from the</p><p>softness of the mushy vegetation he’d become accustomed to.</p><p>He’d pull off their heads and chew the rest down as fast as he</p><p>could so he didn’t have to dwell on what he was actually</p><p>eating.</p><p>“Grasshoppers were pretty crunchy as well,” Ricky said. “I</p><p>didn’t really appreciate the sensation of the legs and wings</p><p>tickling the insides of my cheeks—they were too spindly for</p><p>282</p><p>my liking. To counter that, I pulled off their limbs and just ate</p><p>the body, which made them more palatable.”</p><p>Megee decided to try any type of food that didn’t look or</p><p>smell like it could kill him. Leeches surprised him, because he</p><p>found them easier to eat than he had expected. “For anyone</p><p>who hasn’t tried leeches, they are some of the sweetest tucker</p><p>you’re ever likely to find when lost in the outback,” he</p><p>explained. “I’d heartily recommend them, as long as you</p><p>learn how to chew fast.”</p><p>He discovered that his mind-set was important. “If I</p><p>complained about anything,” Ricky said after this ordeal was</p><p>over, “suddenly the frogs and leeches wouldn’t want to know</p><p>about me. But if I praised God for giving me nothing, then all</p><p>the luck seemed to come my way the next morning.” Food,</p><p>water, and shelter were his basic requirements for survival.</p><p>But as the days wore on and Megee grew weaker, he had to</p><p>look for eating alternatives that didn’t require expending so</p><p>much valuable energy.</p><p>He even tried to eat one of the cockroaches that had invaded</p><p>the little mud shelter he’d constructed. “Just bringing that</p><p>putrid, disgusting thing near my mouth created a smell strong</p><p>enough to make me want to spew,” Ricky explained later.</p><p>“But there was still the remote possibility they tasted like</p><p>peaches—I had to go through with it.”Ignoring the stench, he</p><p>shoved the cockroach headfirst into his mouth. But even a</p><p>starving man has his limits.</p><p>“I’m not sure if it was the stomach-churning taste or the smell</p><p>that got me in the end,” Megee said. “However, the result was</p><p>putrid enough to have me hurling uncontrollably out of the</p><p>283</p><p>end of my shelter within two seconds. I didn’t even manage to</p><p>chew on him in the end—he was spat out before he sucked his</p><p>last breath.”</p><p>Despite eventually losing half of his body weight, Ricky</p><p>Megee survived an incredible ten weeks. He did so by</p><p>instinctively solving the basic requirements of water, food,</p><p>and shelter—and adopting a survival mind-set that pulled him</p><p>through.</p><p>Desert sunset</p><p>284</p><p>DESERT SURVIVAL</p><p>285</p><p>6</p><p>“Success is not final, failure is not fatal. It is the courage to</p><p>continue that counts.”</p><p>—Winston Churchill</p><p>Water covers approximately seventy-five percent of the</p><p>earth’s surface. Seventy percent of that is made up of seas and</p><p>oceans. Assuming you will cross these vast expanses of water</p><p>in your lifetime, there’s always a chance that a crippled boat</p><p>or aircraft will make you lost at sea.</p><p>Survival at sea is especially challenging and will depend on</p><p>the rations and equipment you have available, your ingenuity,</p><p>and your will to survive. You can expect to face waves, high</p><p>winds, and possibly extremes of heat and cold.</p><p>Learn How to Use Available Survival Equipment</p><p>Whether traveling by boat or plane, take time to familiarize</p><p>yourself with the survival equipment on board. Find out</p><p>where it’s stowed and what it contains. Ask yourself: How</p><p>many life preservers, lifeboats, and rafts are there? Where are</p><p>they located? Are they stocked with food and medical</p><p>equipment? Familiarize yourself with exits and escape routes.</p><p>Aircraft</p><p>286</p><p>If you’re in an aircraft that goes down at sea, get clear and</p><p>upwind of the aircraft as soon as possible. Stay in the vicinity</p><p>of the aircraft until it sinks, but clear of any fuel-covered</p><p>water in case it catches fire.</p><p>Look for other survivors. If they’re in the water and you’re in</p><p>a lifeboat or raft, throw them a life preserver attached to a</p><p>line, or send a rescuer from the raft with a line secured to a</p><p>flotation device that will support the rescuer’s weight (and</p><p>help that person conserve energy). It’s very important that the</p><p>rescuer always wear a life preserver.</p><p>Be careful how you approach a panic-stricken person. Try to</p><p>approach any survivor who needs to be rescued from behind.</p><p>If possible, grab the back strap of the survivor’s life preserver</p><p>and pull that person to the closest available lifeboat or raft by</p><p>swimming sidestroke.</p><p>If you’re alone in the water and no rafts are available, find a</p><p>large piece of floating debris and try clinging to it or even</p><p>using it as a raft.</p><p>Understand that floating on your back expends the least</p><p>amount of energy. Spread your arms and legs, arch your back,</p><p>and lie down in the water. Your body’s natural buoyancy will</p><p>keep the top of your head above the water. If you relax and</p><p>breathe evenly in and out, you can keep your face above</p><p>water and even sleep in this position for short periods of time.</p><p>If you’re unable to float on your back or the sea is too rough,</p><p>float facedown in the water.</p><p>287</p><p>Get to a raft or lifeboat as quickly as possible.</p><p>Once you’re in a raft or lifeboat:</p><p>1. Give self aid and first-aid if necessary to others onboard.</p><p>2. Take seasickness pills, if available, by placing them under</p><p>your tongue and letting them dissolve. Remember that</p><p>288</p><p>vomiting caused by seasickness increases the danger of</p><p>dehydration.</p><p>3. Salvage all floating equipment, including rations,</p><p>containers, clothing, seat cushions, parachutes, or anything</p><p>else that can be useful. But make sure that these items contain</p><p>no sharp edges that can damage or puncture your lifeboat or</p><p>raft.</p><p>4. If you’re in the vicinity of other rafts or lifeboats, lash them</p><p>together so that they’re approximately 7 ½ meters apart. That</p><p>makes it easier for an aircrew to spot you.</p><p>5. Use all electronic and visual signaling devices to make</p><p>contact with rescuers.</p><p>6. Check to see if there’s an emergency radio or other</p><p>signaling devices onboard. If so, activate it immediately. If</p><p>you’re in enemy territory, use these devices only when you</p><p>think friendly aircraft are nearby.</p><p>7. Wipe away all fuel that might have spilled on the raft</p><p>because petroleum will weaken the raft and erode its glued</p><p>joints.</p><p>8. Check the inflation of your raft regularly. Chambers should</p><p>be full, but not tight. Remember that air expands in heat. So</p><p>on hot days, air might have to be released, and the chambers</p><p>inflated in cooler weather.</p><p>9. Try to stay close to the crash site so that you’re easier to</p><p>locate by rescuers. You can do this by throwing out the sea</p><p>anchor or by improving a drag with a bailing bucket or a roll</p><p>289</p><p>of clothing. When you deploy the sea anchor, make sure that</p><p>it’s open because a closed anchor will form a pocket that will</p><p>help propel the raft with the current.</p><p>10. Wrap the anchor rope with cloth so it doesn’t chaff the</p><p>raft.</p><p>11. Keep your raft as dry as possible, with everyone seated,</p><p>and the heaviest passenger in the center.</p><p>12. Waterproof items that might be affected by saltwater—</p><p>i.e., watches, compasses, matches, and lighters.</p><p>13. Ration food and water.</p><p>14. Together with the other survivors, take stock of your</p><p>situation and supplies, and plan for what it’s going to take to</p><p>survive.</p><p>15. Assign duties to each person—i.e., water collector,</p><p>lookout, radio operator, bailer.</p><p>16. If you’re in unfriendly waters, wait until nightfall before</p><p>paddling or hoisting a sail. Be sure aircraft are friendly before</p><p>trying to signal and get their attention.</p><p>17. If you’re in a cold climate, rig a windbreak, spray shield,</p><p>and canopy.</p><p>during which</p><p>they train in snow and freezing wind while often carrying half</p><p>26</p><p>their body weight in weapons and gear. The course includes</p><p>cross-country skiing, snow shoe travel, building shelters,</p><p>procuring food and water, fire building, using specialized</p><p>survival gear to plot courses in the mountainous and</p><p>snow-covered terrain, and conducting ice-cold ocean swims,</p><p>river crossings, and long-range navigation through the</p><p>mountain wilderness to infiltrate and establish covert</p><p>surveillance of target sites.</p><p>BUD/S and winter warfare training prepares SEAL trainees to</p><p>become combat-ready warriors. But they don’t learn the nitty</p><p>gritty of survival until they complete SERE School.</p><p>27</p><p>28</p><p>Kodiak, Alaska—A SEAL qualification training candidate</p><p>looks out from a two-man tent during a re-warming</p><p>exercise in which he spent five minutes in near freezing</p><p>water.</p><p>Kodiak, Alaska—A SEAL qualification training</p><p>candidate checks the gear of another member of his squad</p><p>during a long-range land navigation exercise. The</p><p>candidates will spend forty-eight hours in the Alaskan</p><p>mountains learning how to navigate through the rugged</p><p>terrain and survive the frigid conditions. The</p><p>twenty-eight-day cold weather training course, taught in</p><p>29</p><p>Kodiak, is part of a year long process to become a U.S.</p><p>Navy SEAL.</p><p>SERE Training</p><p>As a young Navy SEAL recently graduated from Basic</p><p>Underwater Demolition School (BUD/S), I was told by a</p><p>Vietnam-era SEAL that if I were captured during wartime,</p><p>there was a good chance I’d be beheaded or skinned alive. I</p><p>immediately volunteered to attend the Navy Survival Evasion</p><p>Resistance and Escape (SERE) course conducted at Warner</p><p>Springs, California.</p><p>Since I knew that as a SEAL I would likely be deployed</p><p>overseas behind enemy lines, I took my survival training</p><p>seriously.</p><p>Most of the twenty members in my SERE class were navy</p><p>pilots and aircrew personnel considered to be at high risk of</p><p>capture. I was the only SEAL.</p><p>The course started with basic lessons in land navigation,</p><p>poisonous plants, animals and insects, water procurement, fire</p><p>making, shelter building, and evasion and escape techniques.</p><p>Then, the twenty of us were dropped off in the desert without</p><p>food or water and ordered to find our way to a safe area while</p><p>trying to avoid contact with the “enemy.”</p><p>We were thirsty and hungry. We drank from the prickly pear</p><p>cactus and looked for edible plants to eat. I happened to see a</p><p>small rabbit running under a bush, threw my KA-BAR knife</p><p>at it, and to my surprise, pinned the rabbit’s neck into the</p><p>ground. I skinned it and made rabbit stew for the team by</p><p>30</p><p>mixing the rabbit with edible plants. But one little rabbit was</p><p>hardly enough to feed twenty hungry men.</p><p>Eventually, all of us were captured. I was plastic-tie tied,</p><p>blindfolded, and thrown into a Jeep. The instructors, outfitted</p><p>in realistic communist-style clothing, played their parts,</p><p>screaming, barking orders, trying their best to intimidate us.</p><p>I played it for real, too. When my captor stepped out of the</p><p>Jeep, I managed to wrestle my bound hands in front of me,</p><p>grab his PRC-77 radio, and throw it under the vehicle. I also</p><p>hid a knife and lighter in my boots.</p><p>I was driven to a fenced POW training camp. There I saw</p><p>enemy guards interrogating other “prisoners,” slamming them</p><p>into walls, humiliating them by having them stand naked</p><p>while being drilled with questions and slapped in the face.</p><p>They started working on us immediately, trying to get us to</p><p>break. There were hard cell interrogations with guards</p><p>shouting questions and slapping you, and soft cell sessions,</p><p>where you were called into a warm office where a pretty</p><p>woman or friendly guard would offer you coffee, snacks, and</p><p>warm clothing.</p><p>31</p><p>U.S. Air Force Airmen of the 336th Training Group head</p><p>out for a six-mile road march while wearing sixty-pound</p><p>packs during the first ever Survival, Evasion, Resistance</p><p>and Escape (SERE) Challenge held at Fairchild Air Force</p><p>Base, Wash. Thirty SERE members are participating in</p><p>the challenge, which includes an obstacle course,</p><p>three-mile run, six-mile road march, and a variety of</p><p>other events that test the strength and stamina of the</p><p>participants.</p><p>What is SERE Training?</p><p>32</p><p>Because of the violent nature of the world we live in, all U.S.</p><p>military and other government personnel, and even civilians</p><p>traveling overseas, run the risk of kidnapping, captivity, and</p><p>exploitation by governmental and non-governmental</p><p>organizations (including terrorist groups) that ignore the</p><p>Geneva Convention and/or other human rights conventions. If</p><p>you travel overseas frequently, especially to areas of conflict,</p><p>you need to know how to avoid danger, evade capture, and, if</p><p>captured, survive while waiting for extraction.</p><p>NATO countries provide basic level Survival Evasion</p><p>Resistance and Escape (SERE) training to all their deployable</p><p>forces.</p><p>SERE Training Levels</p><p>Level A is initial entry-level training that all military</p><p>personnel— enlisted and officers—receive upon entering the</p><p>service. It provides a minimum level of understanding of the</p><p>code of conduct.</p><p>33</p><p>Getting the attention of four A-10 Thunderbolt II pilots</p><p>by using a mirror during Combat Search And Rescue</p><p>(CSAR) training near Osan Air Base, South Korea.</p><p>Annual CSAR training is conducted by Survival Evasion</p><p>Resistance Escape (SERE) instructors and is designed to</p><p>reacquaint aircrew members with CSAR procedures and</p><p>techniques.</p><p>34</p><p>35</p><p>A soldier waits for an HH-60 Pave Hawk helicopter to</p><p>extract him from a simulated hostile area during a</p><p>Survive, Evade, Resist and Escape (SERE) exercise in</p><p>support of Red Flag-Alaska (RF-A) near Eielson Air</p><p>Force Base, Alaska. Feeman is role-playing a downed pilot</p><p>who was shot down behind enemy lines. RF-A is a Pacific</p><p>Air Forces-directed field training exercise for U.S. and</p><p>coalition forces flown under simulated air-combat</p><p>conditions.</p><p>As seen under night vision photography, U.S. sailors</p><p>assigned to Basic Underwater Demolition/ SEAL class 281</p><p>carry an inflatable boat toward the surf during a first</p><p>36</p><p>phase navigation training exercise in San Diego, Calif.</p><p>First phase is an eight-week course that trains, prepares,</p><p>and selects SEAL candidates based on physical</p><p>conditioning, water competency; mental tenacity and</p><p>teamwork.</p><p>Level B is designed for personnel whose “jobs, specialties or</p><p>assignments entail moderate risk of capture and exploitation.”</p><p>Department of Defense Policy No. 1300.21 lists as examples</p><p>“members of ground combat units, security forces for high</p><p>threat targets and anyone in the immediate vicinity of the</p><p>forward edge of the battle area or the forward line of troops.”</p><p>Current operations in Iraq and Afghanistan have shown that</p><p>practically everyone deployed in theater falls under this</p><p>category. Consequently, the demand for Level-B training has</p><p>proliferated exponentially and has become mandatory for</p><p>most deploying forces. Level B is conducted at the unit level</p><p>through the use of training/support packets containing a series</p><p>of standardized lesson plans and videos.</p><p>Level C is designed for personnel whose “jobs, specialties or</p><p>assignments entail a significant or high risk of capture and</p><p>exploitation.” According to military directive AR 350-30, “As</p><p>a minimum, the following categories of personnel shall</p><p>receive formal Level-C training at least once in their careers:</p><p>combat aircrews, special operations forces (e.g., navy special</p><p>warfare combat swimmers and special boat units—i.e.,</p><p>SEALs, Army Special Forces and Rangers, Marine Corps</p><p>Force Reconnaissance units, Air Force special tactics teams,</p><p>and psychological operations units) and military attaché.”</p><p>SERE C-Level Training</p><p>37</p><p>The course spans three weeks with three phases of instruction.</p><p>Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE) students</p><p>aboard a life raft prepare to perform a twenty-man egress</p><p>during water survival training at Langley Air Force Base,</p><p>Va. The training, conducted by SERE specialists, teaches</p><p>students how to survive if they egress over water. The</p><p>course also covers proper signaling,</p><p>Stay dry and insulate your body as much as</p><p>possible, including protecting yourself from the cold bottom</p><p>of the raft. Huddle with others to stay warm. Remember that</p><p>hypothermia occurs rapidly when you’re immersed in cold</p><p>water because of the decreased insulating value of wet</p><p>clothing.</p><p>290</p><p>18. If you’re in a hot climate, rig a sunshade or canopy,</p><p>leaving room for ventilation. Cover your exposed skin and</p><p>protect it with sunscreen if available.</p><p>Gingerroot settles the stomach and can help with sea</p><p>sickness.</p><p>Boat</p><p>If you have a supply of food, fishing equipment, and fresh</p><p>water, you can survive for a long time in a boat. If you don’t</p><p>have enough fresh water, make a rainwater collection system</p><p>with a tarp or raincoat that runs into a container. Or simply</p><p>place collection containers on the deck during rainy weather.</p><p>291</p><p>Drink at least a liter of fresh water a day, fish a little, and try</p><p>to relax.</p><p>Life raft</p><p>Life Raft</p><p>Life rafts are a lot like boats but have a greater chance of</p><p>sinking due to punctures, leaks, rips, or defects. Modern life</p><p>292</p><p>rafts are durable and come well-equipped for emergencies.</p><p>They can range from a one-man raft to larger 25-man rafts.</p><p>They’re usually equipped with some combination of the</p><p>following:</p><p>• Covered deck</p><p>• Paddles</p><p>• Insulated flooring</p><p>• Bailing buckets</p><p>• Ladders</p><p>• Flares</p><p>• Water collection pouches</p><p>• Signaling mirrors</p><p>• Reflective tape</p><p>• Fishing kits</p><p>In the Water</p><p>If you’re in the water without a boat or raft, you have your</p><p>work cut out for you. Wear an inflatable safety vest, if</p><p>available. It will keep you floating. If you’re in cold water,</p><p>pull your knees to your chest, which will help your body</p><p>retain heat and resist hypothermia.</p><p>293</p><p>If you can’t swim well but need to cross a large body of</p><p>water, use your pants as a flotation device. Simply remove</p><p>your pants, tie off the legs, then allow them to fill them with</p><p>air (a skill often taught in U.S. military boot camp—all</p><p>services). Raise the pants over your head in the water and</p><p>they’ll act like a life jacket.</p><p>Drinking Water</p><p>Drinking water is vital to your survival. With it alone, you</p><p>can survive for ten days or more. When you consume it, wet</p><p>your lips, tongue, and throat before swallowing.</p><p>Protect your freshwater supplies from saltwater contamination</p><p>and use it efficiently. Calculate daily water rations by</p><p>measuring the amount of fresh water you have, the output of</p><p>solar stills and any desalting kit, and the number and physical</p><p>condition of the people on your lifeboat or raft.</p><p>If you run out of fresh water, don’t eat. Do not drink seawater</p><p>or urine!</p><p>To reduce water loss through perspiration, soak your clothes</p><p>in seawater and wring them out before putting them on again.</p><p>But do this only when necessary because you can develop</p><p>saltwater boils and rashes from wet clothes.</p><p>Keep a clean tarpaulin ready to catch water from showers. A</p><p>small amount of seawater mixed with the rainwater you catch</p><p>is not a cause for concern. The water will still be safe to drink</p><p>and won’t cause a physical reaction.</p><p>294</p><p>At night, hang the tarpaulin like a sunshade and turn up the</p><p>edges to collect dew. Dew can also be collected from the</p><p>sides of the lifeboat or raft using a sponge.</p><p>If solar stills are available, set up the stills immediately.</p><p>If you have desalting kits in addition to solar stills, save the</p><p>desalting kits for overcast periods when you can’t use solar</p><p>stills, or catch rainwater.</p><p>In arctic areas, old sea ice, which is bluish, has rounded</p><p>corners and splinters easily, is nearly salt free, and can be</p><p>used as a source of water. Avoid new ice, which is gray,</p><p>milky looking, and hard. Water from icebergs is fresh, but</p><p>should only be used in case of an emergency. Icebergs are</p><p>extremely dangerous.</p><p>If you run out of fresh water, you can drink the aqueous fluids</p><p>found along the spine and in the eyes of large fish. Cut the</p><p>fish in half to get to the fluid along the spine, and suck the</p><p>fluid of the eye. Avoid any other fish fluids, as these are rich</p><p>in fat and protein and will use up more water during digestion</p><p>than they will supply.</p><p>Sleep and rest are the best ways to endure periods with little</p><p>or no food and water.</p><p>Food</p><p>When at sea, fish will be your main source of food. With a</p><p>few exceptions, fish caught out of sight of land are safe to eat.</p><p>Fish nearer to shore are more likely to be poisonous. Some</p><p>295</p><p>fish that are normally edible—like red snapper and</p><p>barracuda—are poisonous when caught in atolls and reefs.</p><p>When fishing with a line, avoid handling it with bare hands or</p><p>tying the line to your lifeboat or raft. Use gloves, if available,</p><p>or a cloth to handle fish.</p><p>Don’t eat fish that have pale, shiny gills; sunken eyes; flabby</p><p>skin; or an unpleasant odor. Good fish smell like saltwater.</p><p>Cut fish that you don’t eat immediately into long, thin strips</p><p>and hang them to dry. Dried fish will remain edible for</p><p>several days. Fish that hasn’t been cleaned or dried will spoil</p><p>in half a day. In warm areas, gut and clean fish immediately</p><p>after catching them.</p><p>The heart, blood, intestinal wall, and liver of most fish are</p><p>edible. Also edible are the partly digested smaller fish that</p><p>you may find in the stomachs of large fish. Sea turtles, eels,</p><p>and sea snakes are edible. But be careful when handling sea</p><p>snakes because their bites are poisonous.</p><p>All shark meat is edible—either raw, dried, or</p><p>cooked—except for the Greenland shark, which contains high</p><p>levels of vitamin A. Shark meat spoils rapidly, so bleed it</p><p>immediately and soak it in several changes of water.</p><p>Fishing</p><p>Fishing line can be made from shoelaces, parachute</p><p>suspension line, or pieces of thread that have begun to unravel</p><p>from tarpaulin or canvas. Simply tie them together until you</p><p>have a usable fishing line.</p><p>296</p><p>If you have a grapple, or can improvise one out of available</p><p>materials, use it to hook seaweed, which can contain crabs,</p><p>shrimp, and even small fish. Seaweed itself is edible but</p><p>contains salt. Only eat it if you have sufficient drinking water.</p><p>Use small fish remains and the guts from birds as bait. A net</p><p>improvised from cloth can be used to catch small fish.</p><p>Be careful not to puncture your lifeboat or raft with hooks or</p><p>sharp instruments. And be careful not to capsize by trying to</p><p>catch large fish.</p><p>Don’t fish when you see large sharks. If you see a large</p><p>school of fish, try to move closer to them.</p><p>At night, light attracts fish. So if you have a light, try fishing</p><p>at night.</p><p>During the day, fish are attracted to shady areas. You might</p><p>find them under your lifeboat, raft, or floating seaweed.</p><p>A spear made out of a knife tied to an oar blade can be used</p><p>to spear large fish. Tie the knife tightly so that you don’t lose</p><p>it, and get large fish into your craft quickly so that they don’t</p><p>slip off the blade.</p><p>Birds</p><p>All birds are edible. Try towing a bright piece of metal behind</p><p>you to attract birds. It’s possible to catch birds with your</p><p>hands or with a noose. Bait the noose in the center with a</p><p>piece of fish if available, and wait for the bird’s feet to enter</p><p>before you pull it tight.</p><p>297</p><p>All parts of a bird are usable. The feathers can provide</p><p>insulation, and the entrails and feet can be used as bait.</p><p>Shoelaces could be used in place of fishing line.</p><p>Health Issues and Hazards</p><p>Seasickness</p><p>298</p><p>The motion of your lifeboat or raft can result in nausea and</p><p>vomiting, which in turn can lead to dehydration, exhaustion,</p><p>and loss of will.</p><p>Treat seasickness by not eating food until the nausea is gone.</p><p>Lie down and rest and take seasickness pills if available.</p><p>Some survivors have reported that erecting a canopy or using</p><p>the horizon as a focal point has helped them overcome</p><p>seasickness.</p><p>Saltwater Sores</p><p>These are caused by a break in skin that has been exposed to</p><p>saltwater for an extended period of time. If scabs and pus</p><p>form, do not open or drain. Flush the sore with fresh water</p><p>and allow to dry. Apply an antiseptic if you have one.</p><p>299</p><p>Shark</p><p>300</p><p>Sunburn</p><p>Try to stay in the shade and keep your head and skin covered.</p><p>Especially</p><p>vulnerable are backs of ears, the skin under your</p><p>chin, and eyelids. Remember that sunlight reflects off the</p><p>water, so you get sunburn not only from above but from</p><p>below.</p><p>If glare from the water causes your eyes to become bloodshot</p><p>and inflamed, bandage them lightly.</p><p>301</p><p>Constipation</p><p>Do not take a laxative, as this will cause further dehydration.</p><p>Exercise as much as possible and drink water.</p><p>Sharks</p><p>Sharks will present the greatest danger. Whales, stingrays,</p><p>and porpoises might appear threatening, but they pose little</p><p>danger in the open sea.</p><p>Consider any shark more than one meter long to the</p><p>dangerous. But keep in mind that out of hundreds of shark</p><p>species, only about twenty of them are known to attack man.</p><p>Those that are dangerous include the great white shark,</p><p>hammerhead, mako, tiger, gray, lemon, sand, nurse, bull, and</p><p>oceanic whitetip shark.</p><p>Sharks found in tropical and subtropical waters are more</p><p>likely to be aggressive. They possess an acute sense of smell</p><p>and become excited by the smell of blood. They’re also very</p><p>sensitive to vibrations in the water.</p><p>Sharks feed all day and night, but most attacks on humans</p><p>have occurred during daylight and especially the late</p><p>afternoon.</p><p>When you’re in the water, stay with other swimmers, watch</p><p>for sharks, and avoid urinating, defecating, and vomiting in</p><p>the water.</p><p>302</p><p>If you’re in the water and feel that a shark attack is imminent,</p><p>splash and yell to try to keep the shark at bay. If you’re</p><p>attacked, kick and strike the shark on the gills or eyes.</p><p>If you’re in a raft or lifeboat and see sharks, stop fishing,</p><p>don’t throw garbage overboard, keep quiet and stop moving</p><p>around.</p><p>If a shark attacks your raft, hit it with anything you have</p><p>except your hands.</p><p>Hypothermia</p><p>Body thermal conductivity in water is twenty-six times faster</p><p>than when exposed to air. If you have a life raft, board as</p><p>soon as possible.</p><p>The use of an immersion suit or other buoyant thermal</p><p>protective device will greatly enhance survival time. (This</p><p>chart is for general reference only.)</p><p>Detecting Land</p><p>Deep water is dark green or dark blue. Shallow water—which</p><p>might mean that land is nearby—is usually lighter in color.</p><p>In the tropics, reflected sunlight off shallow lagoons or coral</p><p>reefs often gives a greenish tint to the sky. In the arctic,</p><p>303</p><p>light-colored reflections on clouds often indicate ice fields or</p><p>snow-covered land.</p><p>If you see a fixed cumulous cloud in a clear sky or in a sky</p><p>where other clouds are moving, it’s often hovering over or</p><p>downwind of an island.</p><p>Birds are another indicator that land is nearby. The direction</p><p>that flocks of birds fly at sunrise or dusk may indicate the</p><p>location of land.</p><p>Nighttime fog, mist, or rain may carry with it the smells and</p><p>sounds of land.</p><p>Approaching Land</p><p>Rafting ashore in strong surf can be dangerous. If you have a</p><p>choice, avoid a nighttime beach landing.</p><p>Try to land on the leeward side of an island or on a point of</p><p>land that juts into the water. Look for gaps in the surf line and</p><p>steer toward them. Avoid coral reefs, rocky areas, rip</p><p>currents, and strong tidal currents.</p><p>If you’re approaching the shore through surf, take down the</p><p>mast (if you have one), put on clothes and shoes, and inflate</p><p>your life vest. Trail the sea anchor using as much line as you</p><p>have, and use the oars or paddles to adjust the anchor to keep</p><p>its line taut. This will kept the raft pointed toward shore and</p><p>prevent the current from pushing the stern forward and</p><p>capsizing you.</p><p>304</p><p>Steer to the sea side of large waves, which will help ride you</p><p>in. If you’re facing strong winds and heavy surf, you have to</p><p>move the craft rapidly through the oncoming crest to avoid</p><p>being turned broadside or thrown end over end. Try to avoid</p><p>meeting large waves at the moment they break. If the surf is</p><p>medium with no wind or an offshore wind, keep the craft</p><p>from passing over the waves too rapidly so it doesn’t drop</p><p>suddenly after topping the crest.</p><p>When you near the beach, ride in the crest of a wave and</p><p>paddle in as far as you can. Don’t get out of the craft until it</p><p>has grounded. Then jump out quickly and beach it.</p><p>In the unlikely event you feel conditions make it impossible</p><p>to make it ashore via craft, jump out of the boat and</p><p>sidestroke or breaststroke ashore wearing your shoes and</p><p>clothing. In moderate surf, you can ride in on the back of a</p><p>small wave by swimming forward with it. If the surf is strong,</p><p>swim toward shore in the trough between waves. When you</p><p>see a new wave approaching, face it, sink to the bottom, and</p><p>wait for it to pass. Then push to the surface and swim forward</p><p>until the next wave approaches.</p><p>Try to stay away from rocky shores. If you have to land on</p><p>one, avoid the locations where waves hit high. Watch out for</p><p>the white spray (an indicator of high-hitting waves). Instead,</p><p>look for places where the waves roll up the rocks and</p><p>approach slowly. Also, look for heavy growths of seaweed</p><p>because the water will be quieter there. Instead of trying to</p><p>swim through the seaweed, crawl over the top of it with</p><p>overhand movements.</p><p>305</p><p>When you reach the shore, let a wave carry you in. Face the</p><p>shore with your feet in front of you, three feet lower than your</p><p>head. This way your feet will absorb the shock. Keep your</p><p>hands ready to grab onto the rocks and hold on.</p><p>If you fail the first time, swim with your hands only, and as</p><p>the next wave approaches assume the sitting position again</p><p>with your feet facing forward.</p><p>Rescue</p><p>When you see a rescue craft approach, whether it’s a ship or</p><p>aircraft, immediately clear all lines and gear that could get in</p><p>the way. Secure all loose items and take down canopies and</p><p>sails. Fully inflate your life preserver and stay in the raft until</p><p>you’re instructed to leave. It’s important to follow all</p><p>instructions given by rescue personnel.</p><p>In the case of an unassisted helicopter rescue, first secure all</p><p>loose equipment in the craft, then deploy the sea anchor. With</p><p>an inflated craft, partially deflate it, then grasp the handhold</p><p>and roll out. Allow the recovery device from the helicopter to</p><p>reach the water’s surface; while holding onto the raft</p><p>handhold with one hand, grasp the recovery device with the</p><p>other. Climb onto the device, secure yourself, then signal the</p><p>hoist operator that you’re ready to go up.</p><p>Coastal Rescue</p><p>In cases where your craft isn’t sighted by rescuers, you might</p><p>have to land along the coast before you’re rescued. To</p><p>maximize your chances of being rescued, it’s better to remain</p><p>306</p><p>close to the shore instead of going inland. But during</p><p>wartime, the enemy is likely to patrol most coastlines</p><p>Coastal Health Hazards</p><p>When surviving along a coastline, you’ll need to look out for</p><p>coral, poisonous and aggressive fish, crocodiles, sea urchins,</p><p>sea biscuits, sponges, anemones, and tides and undertow.</p><p>307</p><p>Life preserver</p><p>Life vests</p><p>Coral</p><p>Coral can inflict painful cuts that have to be cleaned</p><p>thoroughly to prevent infection. DO NOT use iodine to</p><p>disinfect any coral cuts because some coral polyps feed on</p><p>iodine, and the application of iodine can cause them to grow</p><p>inside your flesh.</p><p>308</p><p>Poisonous Fish</p><p>Many reef fish contain poisons that are present in all parts of</p><p>the fish, but especially in the liver, intestines, and eggs. Since</p><p>fish toxins are water soluble, no amount of cooking will</p><p>neutralize them. Also, birds are much less susceptible to the</p><p>poisons. So don’t think it’s safe for you to eat to eat a certain</p><p>type of fish just because you see a bird eat it.</p><p>Fish toxins produce numbness of the lips, tongue, toes, and</p><p>tips of the fingers; severe itching, nausea, vomiting, loss of</p><p>speech, dizziness, and a paralysis that can eventually result in</p><p>death.</p><p>Certain species of coastal fish are dangerous to even touch.</p><p>Stonefish and toadfish have venomous spines that can cause</p><p>agonizing pain but are seldom fatal. Some jellyfish can inflict</p><p>a very painful sting if they touch you with their tenteacles</p><p>Many stingrays have a poisonous barb in their tail. Other reef</p><p>fish can deliver electric shocks.</p><p>309</p><p>Barracuda</p><p>310</p><p>Jellyfish</p><p>311</p><p>Crocodiles</p><p>312</p><p>Sea urchin</p><p>Aggressive Fish</p><p>Avoid sharks, barracuda, sea bass, moray eels, and sea</p><p>snakes. All of them will bite if disturbed. Barracuda have</p><p>been known to attack swimmers and divers wearing shiny</p><p>objects.</p><p>Crocodiles</p><p>313</p><p>Crocodiles inhabit tropical saltwater bays and</p><p>mangrove-bordered estuaries and range up to sixty-five</p><p>kilometers into the open sea. They’re commonly found in the</p><p>remote areas of the East Indies and Southeast Asia. Consider</p><p>any crocodile over one meter long to be dangerous, especially</p><p>females guarding their nests. Crocodile meat is an excellent</p><p>source of protein, if you can trap or kill one.</p><p>Sea Urchins, Sea Biscuits, Sponges, and Anemones</p><p>These creatures—which are usually found in shallow tropical</p><p>water near coral formations—can cause extreme pain but are</p><p>rarely fatal. If stepped on, they slip fine needles of lime or</p><p>silica into the skin, where they break off and fester. If</p><p>possible, remove the spines and treat the injury for infection.</p><p>Tides and Undertow</p><p>If caught in a large wave’s undertow, push off the bottom or</p><p>swim to the surface and proceed shoreward in a trough</p><p>between waves. Do not fight against the pull of the undertow.</p><p>Swim with it or perpendicular to it until it loses strength; then</p><p>swim for shore.</p><p>Coastal Food</p><p>Obtaining food along a coastline is generally not a problem.</p><p>There are many types of seaweed and animal life that are easy</p><p>to find and safe to eat.</p><p>Mollusks</p><p>314</p><p>You can eat mussels, limpets, clams, sea snails, octopuses,</p><p>squids, and sea slugs. Avoid the blue-ringed octopus and cone</p><p>shells. Also beware of “red tides” (algal blooms) that make</p><p>mollusks poisonous.</p><p>Mussels</p><p>315</p><p>Cuttlefish</p><p>316</p><p>317</p><p>Barnacles</p><p>Worms</p><p>Coastal worms are generally edible but are better used as fish</p><p>bait. Avoid bristle worms that look like fuzzy caterpillars and</p><p>tube worms that have sharp-edged tubes. Arrowworms, found</p><p>in the sand, are edible either fresh or dried.</p><p>Crabs, Lobsters, and Barnacles</p><p>They are seldom dangerous and are excellent sources of</p><p>protein. Look out for the pincers of larger crabs or lobsters, as</p><p>they can crush a man’s finger. Many species also have spines</p><p>on their shells, so it’s advisable to wear gloves when catching</p><p>them. Barnacles can cause scrapes or cuts and are difficult to</p><p>detach from their anchor, but the larger species especially are</p><p>an excellent food source.</p><p>Sea Urchins</p><p>Although they’re a good source of food, they can cause</p><p>painful injuries when stepped on or touched. Handle them</p><p>with gloves, and remove all spines.</p><p>Sea Cucumbers</p><p>These are an important food source in the Indo-Pacific</p><p>regions. Remove the five muscular strips that run the length</p><p>of the body, and eat them smoked, pickled, or cooked.</p><p>Sea Survival Stories</p><p>318</p><p>San Blas Fishermen</p><p>Four Mexican fishermen—Salvador Ordonez, Jesus Vindaña,</p><p>Lucio Rendón, and a man called El Farsero—and the owner</p><p>of a small fishing boat, Juan David, left the fishing village of</p><p>San Blas on October 28, 2005, on a shark fishing expedition.</p><p>Heavy currents caught the boat and carried it nearly 5,000</p><p>miles out to sea. Three of the five men survived and claimed</p><p>that they stayed alive by catching and eating fish and</p><p>seabirds. They weathered storms, and staved off thirst by</p><p>collecting rainwater. A Taiwanese fishing boat rescued the</p><p>men on August 9, 2006, near the Marshall Islands, nine</p><p>months and nine days after they left shore, making their feat</p><p>of survival one of the longest on record.</p><p>Mr. Ordóñez, a thirty-seven-year-old native of Oaxaca who</p><p>was known in San Blas for carrying a Bible everywhere and</p><p>getting into the occasional bar fight, said he worried at the</p><p>start of the trip because the boat’s owner had not packed</p><p>enough provisions for the usual shark-fishing trip, which lasts</p><p>from three days to a week.</p><p>Once disaster struck and the men found themselves being</p><p>sucked out into the Pacific Ocean, they turned to what they</p><p>knew best: fishing. Having some knives and other equipment</p><p>aboard, they fashioned hooks from engine parts and lines</p><p>from cables. Mr. Ordóñez, who had taken a course on</p><p>surviving at sea a year before, earned the nickname “the cat”</p><p>for his ability to sneak up on seabirds.</p><p>The men survived on fish, birds, and fish blood. But the</p><p>boat’s owner, Juan David, and El Farscero had trouble</p><p>digesting the raw food, and became sick and started vomiting</p><p>319</p><p>blood. They both died after three months and, according to</p><p>the three survivors, had to be thrown overboard. As they</p><p>drifted for months Ordonez, Vindaña, and Rendón passed the</p><p>time singing ballads, dancing, pretending to play guitar, and</p><p>reading aloud to each other from the Bible. Little things took</p><p>on tremendous importance. They kept track of time with Mr.</p><p>Rendón’s wristwatch.</p><p>The worst part of the voyage came in December and January,</p><p>when several large storms hit and the men could catch few</p><p>fish. “We were afraid we would sink,” Mr. Vidaña said. “The</p><p>longest we went without food was about thirteen days, when</p><p>we had only one seabird to eat.”</p><p>Poon Lim</p><p>Born in China in 1917, Poon Lim was working as a second</p><p>steward on the British merchant ship SS Ben Lomond when it</p><p>was intercepted and torpedoed by a German U-boat on</p><p>November 23, 1942. As the ship was sinking in the Atlantic</p><p>Ocean off the southern coast of Africa, Poon Lim grabbed a</p><p>life jacket and jumped overboard before the ship’s boilers</p><p>exploded. After approximately two hours in the water, he</p><p>noticed an empty life raft and climbed into it. The raft</p><p>contained a couple of tins of biscuits, a ten-gallon jug of</p><p>water, some flares, and an electric torch.</p><p>Poon Lim kept himself alive by drinking only a few swallows</p><p>of water and taking two biscuits a day. He kept himself in</p><p>shape by swimming around the raft twice a day. He took a</p><p>wire from the electric torch and made it into a fish hook and</p><p>used a hemp rope as a fishing line. When he captured a fish,</p><p>he cut it open with the edge of a biscuit tin and used half of it</p><p>320</p><p>for bait. Later he captured seagulls for food. He used the</p><p>canvas of the life jacket to collect rainwater.</p><p>Twice other vessels passed nearby—a freighter and U.S.</p><p>Navy patrol planes—but they didn’t notice him. Poon Lim</p><p>counted the days with notches on the side of the raft. On April</p><p>5, 1943, he saw a sail on the horizon and managed to attract</p><p>attention. Three Brazilian fishermen rescued him and took</p><p>him to Belem three days later.</p><p>During his four-month ordeal Poon Lim had lost twenty</p><p>pounds, but he was able to walk unaided. He later found out</p><p>that only eleven of the ship’s 55-man crew had been rescued.</p><p>King George VI honored him with a British Empire Medal</p><p>and the British Navy used his tale in its manuals of survival</p><p>techniques. His employers gave him a gold watch.</p><p>Titanic lifeboats on way to Carpathia</p><p>The Titanic</p><p>The “unsinkable” RMS Titanic was the biggest and most</p><p>luxurious passenger liner of her time. On April 10, 1912, the</p><p>321</p><p>Titanic left England on its maiden voyage with about 2,200</p><p>people onboard, including many of the world’s rich and</p><p>famous. Four days later, a lookout spotted an iceberg directly</p><p>ahead. Titanic reversed her engines and tried to turn away, but</p><p>it was too late. The Titanic hit the iceberg, which gouged out</p><p>250 feet (eighty-three yards) of hull and popped out at least</p><p>six rivets below the waterline. Water poured through the holes</p><p>from the rivets and flooded the first five watertight</p><p>compartments at the front of the ship. The weight of the</p><p>flooded compartments pulled Titanic headfirst into the ocean.</p><p>Over the next two hours, the Titanic broke into at least two</p><p>pieces and sunk.</p><p>Even though she carried more lifeboats than were required by</p><p>law, there were only enough to accommodate about half of</p><p>the passengers onboard. And in the panic, most of the</p><p>available lifeboats were launched only half or a quarter full.</p><p>Only two out of the eighteen launched lifeboats returned to</p><p>rescue passengers from the water after the wreck.</p><p>More than 1,500 people died. Many went down with the ship</p><p>or died of hypothermia</p><p>after jumping overboard into the frigid</p><p>water. There was another ship in the vicinity, but her wireless</p><p>operator had already left his post for the night, so he didn’t</p><p>pick up Titanic’s calls for help. Fewer than 700 people</p><p>survived.</p><p>The Whale ship Essex</p><p>In 1820, when the Essex set sail from Nantucket Island, off</p><p>Rhode Island, on a routine whale hunt, the crew of twenty</p><p>men had no idea that fifteen months later they would find</p><p>themselves adrift in the vast Pacific at the mercy of the</p><p>322</p><p>elements and their own human failings. But like the classic</p><p>novel it inspired—Herman Melville’s Moby Dick—the Essex</p><p>was hit by an enraged sperm whale that struck just beneath</p><p>the anchor.</p><p>Vessels prepared for water rescue</p><p>323</p><p>According to the account of crew member Owen Chase: “I</p><p>turned around and saw him about one hundred rods (550</p><p>yards) directly ahead of us, coming down with twice his</p><p>ordinary speed [around twenty-four knots or forty-four kph],</p><p>and it appeared with tenfold fury and vengeance in his aspect.</p><p>The surf flew in all directions about him with the continual</p><p>violent thrashing of his tail. His head about half out of the</p><p>water, and in that way he came upon us, and again struck the</p><p>ship.”</p><p>The whale crushed the bow and drove the 283-ton vessel</p><p>backwards into the ocean. Then it disengaged its head from</p><p>the shattered timbers and swam off, never to be seen again.</p><p>Able to salvage only three small harpoon boats and a few</p><p>meager supplies, the crew made the fateful choice to sail back</p><p>east to South America rather than west to any of several</p><p>Pacific islands. With an innate fear of cannibalism rumored to</p><p>exist among native tribes, they preferred to brave the</p><p>familiarity of the ocean. For the next ninety-three days they</p><p>would come to question the wisdom of that decision as the</p><p>trade winds and storms blew them farther and farther from</p><p>their destination. The sad irony is that many times during</p><p>their 3,000-mile ordeal of hunger, thirst, and death they would</p><p>have been within reach of a lifesaving island if they had only</p><p>turned west.</p><p>As members of the crew began to die of thirst, the three</p><p>harpoon boats landed on uninhabited Henderson</p><p>Island—roughly 1,350 miles south-southeast of Tahiti and</p><p>4,100 miles west of Panama—within the British territory of</p><p>the Pitcairn Islands. There the men found fresh water and</p><p>324</p><p>gorged themselves on birds, fish, and vegetation. Within a</p><p>week they had exhausted the island’s resources.</p><p>Three men—William Wright, Seth Weeks, and Thomas</p><p>Chapple—opted to stay behind on Henderson. The remaining</p><p>Essex crewmen resumed their journey, but within three days</p><p>had exhausted the fish and birds they had collected for the</p><p>voyage, leaving only a small reserve of bread salvaged from</p><p>the Essex. One by one, the men began to die.</p><p>By the time the last of the eight survivors were rescued on</p><p>April 5, 1821, the corpses of seven fellow sailors had been</p><p>consumed. All eight returned to the sea within months of their</p><p>return to Nantucket.</p><p>325</p><p>SURVIVAL AT SEA</p><p>326</p><p>7</p><p>“If hope is out there, hope can get you through.”</p><p>—NASA Astronaut Jerry Linenger, who spent months</p><p>stranded on the Russian Space Station</p><p>Main Tips to Remember</p><p>The only person you can ultimately count on is yourself.</p><p>No one else can give you the mental will, physical stamina,</p><p>and common sense that you’re going to need to survive. So</p><p>don’t depend on others—you may be alone! Make your plans,</p><p>pack your own survival kit, and if something unplanned</p><p>happens when you are on your own in the wild, be prepared</p><p>to take care of your own needs as well as the needs of your</p><p>teammates.</p><p>This self-sufficient attitude is empowering in itself.</p><p>Remember that your life depends on what you do, not on the</p><p>chance that a teammate will be there to do for you what you</p><p>can’t do for yourself.</p><p>Always leave behind detailed plans and timetables with a</p><p>trusted person.</p><p>That way, if you’re missing, a search party is likely to be sent</p><p>out sooner than later if you fail to arrive back when expected.</p><p>327</p><p>Prepare for the six contingencies.</p><p>1. Becoming lost. It’s not enough to rely on your good sense</p><p>of direction. Always carry at least one compass, a map, and</p><p>GPS and a SPOT or locating device.</p><p>2. Darkness. With darkness we shift from relying primarily on</p><p>seeing to relying primarily on hearing. This is an</p><p>uncomfortable change for some people. Remember that</p><p>darkness can be your friend. Treat it with respect, and don’t</p><p>move into areas where you could get hurt by your inability to</p><p>see.</p><p>3. Being stranded. There are countless contingencies under</p><p>which you could be stuck in the wilderness for an extended</p><p>period of time. Anticipate that this could happen and plan for</p><p>ways to alert others and make your way to safety.</p><p>4. Illness or injury. Any time you go into the wilderness,</p><p>there’s always the possibility that you can become injured or</p><p>ill. Practice and develop your own wilderness first-aid skills.</p><p>5. Extreme weather. There is no such thing as bad weather,</p><p>just different types of weather. Always be prepared. Snow,</p><p>rain, or extreme heat or cold can impact your ability to</p><p>survive. Before heading out, make sure you have the proper</p><p>clothing, water, and the ability to shelter yourself for</p><p>extended periods of time.</p><p>If lost, stop and do a map study.</p><p>Don’t move unless you know where you are and where you</p><p>are going. Many very experienced point men and navigators</p><p>328</p><p>have become lost or disoriented in the wild. Remember that</p><p>the consequences of panic can be fatal. Take a break, do a</p><p>good map study, reevaluate your situation, and allow the</p><p>adrenaline that has flooded your system and put you in fight</p><p>or flight mode to subside.</p><p>Assess your situation as objectively as you can.</p><p>1. Treat any injuries—yours or your teammates. Self aid and</p><p>buddy aid. Your health is most important for survival.</p><p>2. What needs to be done to assure your safety? Do you need</p><p>to move to a safer area?</p><p>3. Observe the area of your location. What are the hazards?</p><p>Are there enemy or friendly forces in the immediate area?</p><p>What are the advantages? Is there water nearby? What can</p><p>you take advantage of to help you survive?</p><p>4. Plan your next move carefully. Work out a plan in your</p><p>head first. If you’re satisfied with it, proceed. If not, give</p><p>yourself time to come up with a better alternative.</p><p>Take stock of your supplies and immediate needs.</p><p>A healthy man can survive for several weeks without food</p><p>and several days without water. So water is your most</p><p>important requirement. Under normal circumstances, the</p><p>human body requires two quarts of water daily to maintain</p><p>adequate hydration.</p><p>Don’t ration the water you have to last for many days. Drink</p><p>what you need. It’s better to have water in your body than in a</p><p>329</p><p>bottle or canteen. Conserve water lost through sweating by</p><p>wearing a hat, sitting in the shade, moving only at night, and</p><p>so on.</p><p>In most terrain, you will eventually find water when moving</p><p>downhill. Watch animals, or follow their tracks. They’ll</p><p>usually lead to water. Birds tend to congregate near water,</p><p>too. Remember that water from streams and ponds should be</p><p>boiled before drinking or purified by other means—tablets,</p><p>straw, filter, boiling etc.</p><p>Signal.</p><p>Always carry a whistle, mirror, and matches to start a fire.</p><p>Smoke is visible from far away in the day.</p><p>330</p><p>Maps</p><p>331</p><p>Raccoon footprints</p><p>Find food.</p><p>Food isn’t an immediate concern unless you’re reasonably</p><p>sure that rescue is many days or weeks off. As a general rule,</p><p>avoid plant life unless you know for a fact that something is</p><p>edible. If it walks, swims, flies, slithers, or crawls, it’s</p><p>332</p><p>probably safe to eat. All fur-bearing animals are edible. All</p><p>birds are edible. Grubs found in rotten logs are edible, as are</p><p>almost all insects.</p><p>Fire requires three elements:</p><p>Oxygen, fuel, and a source of heat. Is your fuel thin and dry</p><p>enough? Is your heat source hot enough to light the tinder? Is</p><p>there enough oxygen reaching the point where the heat meets</p><p>the fuel? Identify the problem and proceed.</p><p>Survival is the ability and the desire to</p><p>stay alive,</p><p>sometimes alone and under adverse circumstances.</p><p>Understand and master each part of this definition.</p><p>1. Ability. Be proficient at building shelter, starting a fire,</p><p>signaling for help, and staying hydrated.</p><p>2. Desire. Regardless of how bad the situation might be, never</p><p>lose the will to survive and always maintain a positive</p><p>attitude.</p><p>3. Stay alive. Your ability to effectively deal with</p><p>life-threatening medical situations is of the highest priority.</p><p>Stay current with your emergency medical skills.</p><p>4. Under adverse conditions. The more you know about your</p><p>environment ahead of time, the greater your advantage.</p><p>5. Alone. Never count on the help of others. Be self-proficient</p><p>since you may end up alone.</p><p>333</p><p>6. Until rescued, be patient. It’s your job to keep yourself and</p><p>your teammates alive.</p><p>Learn to deal with the enemies of survival.</p><p>1. Pain</p><p>2. Cold and/or Heat</p><p>3. Thirst</p><p>4. Hunger</p><p>5. Fatigue</p><p>The Rule of Threes</p><p>A human being can survive:</p><p>• three minutes without air</p><p>• three hours without a regulated body temperature</p><p>• three days without water</p><p>• three weeks without food</p><p>In summary, here is a list of common-sense survival tips:</p><p>1. Always carry a map, at least one compass, a GPS and a</p><p>SPOT or something similar.</p><p>2. Dress using layers to avoid overheating.</p><p>334</p><p>3. Carry water and water purification tablets or filter when</p><p>possible. During the map studies, always identify alternate</p><p>water sources.</p><p>4. Carry high-calorie energy food such as protein bars in your</p><p>second and third line gear.</p><p>Compass</p><p>335</p><p>The Case of Aron Ralston</p><p>Can you imagine amputating your arm with a blunt knife? As</p><p>excruciatingly painful and inconceivable as it sounds, that</p><p>turned out to be the only option left to 28-year-old Aron</p><p>Ralston after an 800-pound boulder fell on his arm, pinning it</p><p>to a canyon wall.</p><p>From midday Saturday, April 26, 2003, until midday</p><p>Thursday, May 1, Ralston was stuck in a remote area of</p><p>Canyonlands National Park in Utah alone and unable to free</p><p>himself. He had little food and water. No one would even</p><p>wonder where he was until he didn’t show up for work on</p><p>Tuesday. Unable to sit, lie down, use his right arm, or sleep,</p><p>he knew that he was in for an excruciatingly difficult time.</p><p>Those 120 hours of what he calls “uninterrupted experience”</p><p>tested to the fullest his physical, mental, emotional, and</p><p>spiritual being.</p><p>Finally, on May 1, 2003, he did the unthinkable, first using</p><p>the boulder to leverage his arm until the bones snapped and</p><p>then sawing away at muscle and tendon with his pocketknife.</p><p>He then rappelled down a sixty-five-foot wall and was later</p><p>found by hikers as he walked back to his car.</p><p>He survived, wrote a best-selling book about his experience</p><p>(Between a Rock and a Hard Place), and continues to climb.</p><p>He later admitted that his big mistake was not telling anyone</p><p>where he was going.</p><p>336</p><p>Canyonlands National Park, Utah</p><p>337</p><p>BASIC SURVIVAL TIPS</p><p>338</p><p>8</p><p>“Water is the driving force of all nature.”</p><p>—Leonardo Da Vinci</p><p>339</p><p>340</p><p>Pond</p><p>Getting lost or stranded in the wild is something that can</p><p>happen to anyone, whether you’re a Navy SEAL, experienced</p><p>outdoorsmen, hiker, tourist, or just someone out for a</p><p>weekend drive. Anybody can be forced to deal with</p><p>circumstances beyond their control, alone and lost, with only</p><p>their wits to rely on for survival.</p><p>341</p><p>The human body is composed of up to seventy-eight percent</p><p>water. So it’s no surprise that the single-most important thing</p><p>you need to live is not food; it’s water. The good news is that</p><p>if you’re resourceful and know where to look, you can find or</p><p>collect good drinking water in just about any environment on</p><p>earth.</p><p>The Institute of Medicine currently recommends a daily</p><p>intake of approximately 2 to 2 ½ quarts of water to replace</p><p>the water lost through normal body functions—urination,</p><p>defecation, breathing, and sweating. All of the chemical and</p><p>electrical activities that take place in the human body take</p><p>place in a water environment; when water is in short supply,</p><p>these activities begin to malfunction.</p><p>It’s important to understand that many people begin their</p><p>survival already dehydrated due to stress and other factors.</p><p>They often continue to dehydrate further when water supplies</p><p>are limited and the quality of any available water is suspect.</p><p>People needing water, but fearful that it is contaminated with</p><p>Giardia, Cryptosporidium, or other harmful pathogens, often</p><p>put off drinking or choose not to use the water at all.</p><p>In North America, as a general rule, it is better to drink</p><p>available fresh water.</p><p>If the water contains harmful pathogens, the onset of</p><p>symptoms will usually be days, if not weeks away. By then</p><p>the individual will hopefully have access to medical care.</p><p>The one exception to this rule is that certain lakes mainly</p><p>found in the western United States contain high</p><p>concentrations of calcium carbonate and calcium bicarbonate.</p><p>342</p><p>This water is not potable. Lakes containing these substances</p><p>are usually easy to identify because the calcium salts leached</p><p>from the soil are deposited in the form of white powder</p><p>around the shorelines. This water tastes terrible and should</p><p>not be consumed unless there is absolutely no other water</p><p>source available.</p><p>In other parts of the world, especially developing</p><p>countries, drinking water that has not been disinfected is</p><p>NOT recommended.</p><p>Viruses such as hepatitis, not commonly found in North</p><p>American waters, are prevalent here and can quickly cause</p><p>incapacitating illness.</p><p>Finding Water</p><p>Throughout much of North America, fresh water can usually</p><p>be found in open sources such as lakes, ponds, rivers, and</p><p>streams. In most cases, it can be obtained fairly easily.</p><p>Remember that water always seeks the lowest level possible</p><p>and that, if present, some form of vegetation will most likely</p><p>grow nearby.</p><p>The best way to locate water is from a vantage point that</p><p>allows you to scan the surrounding countryside. Slowly and</p><p>methodically look for indicators such as green vegetation,</p><p>flocks of birds, trails left by domestic and wild animals, and</p><p>even large formations of rock that can contain natural springs.</p><p>Check for low-lying areas—such as depressions or</p><p>sinks—where rainfall or melting snow is likely to collect.</p><p>Water can often be found in these areas long after the last</p><p>precipitation, especially if they are shaded.</p><p>343</p><p>Water sources like these should be checked carefully since</p><p>they’re often contaminated with debris that has been washed</p><p>into the drainage. Finding the remains of animals that have</p><p>died nearby or in the water and other similar contaminants</p><p>will necessitate boiling the water, the use of halogens (iodine</p><p>or chlorine), or the use of a mechanical purification pump.</p><p>The quantity of water produced by seeps and springs tends to</p><p>vary greatly. Some of them produce no more than a few</p><p>teaspoons of water per hour. In other cases, gallons of water</p><p>can flow from the ground in minutes. Where the output is</p><p>slow and small, use the flat edge of the mouth on a plastic bag</p><p>to scoop up the water from a shallow source; if it is flowing,</p><p>use it to collect the water as it runs into the bag. A short piece</p><p>of vinyl aquarium hose also works well for sucking up water</p><p>from shallow collections or to recover water from narrow</p><p>cracks in the rocks.</p><p>Also, keep an eye out for man-made sources of water such as</p><p>windmills, wells, tanks, dams, and irrigation canals.</p><p>Windmills are common in parts of North America, especially</p><p>in areas where little surface water exists. In most cases, the</p><p>water pumped to the surface is collected in a nearby tank or</p><p>pumped directly into a trough from which livestock can drink.</p><p>Where an open source is not available, it may be necessary to</p><p>dismantle the piping associated with the windmill to gain</p><p>access to the water.</p><p>344</p><p>Mountain lake</p><p>If you find an abandoned well where the rope and bucket</p><p>typically used to lift water from these wells is missing,</p><p>improvise a means to lower a container down into the well to</p><p>retrieve the water. If you don’t have a container, an item</p><p>of</p><p>clothing can be lowered into the water to serve as a sponge.</p><p>In arid areas, particularly in the western and southwestern</p><p>United States, many state wildlife agencies and conservation</p><p>organizations have installed rainwater collectors called</p><p>“guzzlers.” These are designed to gather precipitation and</p><p>345</p><p>feed it into a holding tank, where it remains until it is either</p><p>consumed by animals or evaporates.</p><p>Just because there’s no water visible on the surface of the</p><p>ground, that doesn’t mean that it’s not present in the soil in</p><p>sufficient quantity to be collected. Locate low-lying areas</p><p>where water is most likely to have accumulated and dig down</p><p>until damp layers of soil are found. The hole should be about</p><p>a foot in diameter. Over time, water may seep into the hole</p><p>where it can be collected. If no indicators of subsurface water</p><p>are present, dig a hole in the outside bend of a dry riverbed.</p><p>Look for a location where the centrifugal force of flowing</p><p>water has eroded the outer bend, creating a depression where</p><p>the last remnants of water flowing downriver will have</p><p>accumulated.</p><p>Groundwater collected this way is likely to be muddy, but</p><p>straining it through cloth will clean it and will get you by in</p><p>the short term. It’s important to remember that you’re taking a</p><p>risk anytime you drink ground water without purifying it.</p><p>Rain is a great source of drinking water and in most rural</p><p>areas can be consumed without risk of disease or illness. If</p><p>you have a poncho or some plastic sheeting, spread it out and</p><p>tie the corners to trees a few feet off the ground. Find a</p><p>container and tie the plastic on a slant so that the rainwater</p><p>can drain into it. If you can’t find a container, devise a</p><p>makeshift water bag by tying the plastic level on all four</p><p>corners but letting it sag in the middle so that the rainwater</p><p>can collect there. If the rainwater tastes different than what</p><p>you’re used to, it’s because it lacks the minerals that are</p><p>found in groundwater and in streams. If you don’t have a</p><p>poncho, rain gear, or piece of plastic, remember that water</p><p>346</p><p>will collect on the upper surfaces of any material (it doesn’t</p><p>have to be waterproof) and drain to the lowest point, where it</p><p>can be collected in a bucket or other container.</p><p>Melt snow before you consume it because if you eat it frozen,</p><p>you’ll reduce your body temperature, which can lead to</p><p>dehydration. The best technique to convert snow into water is</p><p>by using what military survival schools call a water machine.</p><p>Make a bag out of any available porous fabric (you can use a</p><p>T-shirt), fill it with snow, and hang it near (but not directly</p><p>over) a fire. Place a container under the bag to collect the</p><p>water. By continually filling the bag with snow you’ll keep it</p><p>from burning.</p><p>If your circumstances don’t allow you to make a fire, you can</p><p>melt snow with the heat of your body. But the process is slow.</p><p>Put several cups of snow in any available waterproof</p><p>container (preferably a soft plastic water bag, locking</p><p>sandwich bag, or something similar) and place it between</p><p>layers of your clothing or in your sleeping bag. Since the</p><p>amount of heat needed to convert snow to water is large and</p><p>the amount of body heat available is finite, only small</p><p>quantities can be melted at a time.</p><p>347</p><p>Water droplets collecting on leaf</p><p>Collecting Water</p><p>Heavy dew can be a good source of potable water. Before the</p><p>sun rises, tie absorbent cloth around your shins and walk</p><p>through high grass. This way you might be able to collect</p><p>enough water for an early morning drink.</p><p>348</p><p>Bamboo</p><p>Fruits, coconuts, cacti, vines, palm trees, and bamboo can also</p><p>be good sources of liquid sustenance. Bend the top of a green</p><p>bamboo stalk down about a foot off the ground and tie it off.</p><p>Cut a few inches off the tip, put a container underneath, and</p><p>leave it overnight. The next day, you’re likely to find a nice</p><p>amount of clear, drinkable water.</p><p>Vines</p><p>Water-producing vines varying in size from the diameter of a</p><p>pencil up to the thickness of a man’s forearm can be found</p><p>throughout much of the southeastern United States. The</p><p>thicker the vine, the more water it is capable of producing.</p><p>Select the thickest one first.</p><p>Use a sharp knife or a machete to sever the tough, woody</p><p>vine. Vines that exude a white latex sap or those that produce</p><p>a colored or foul-smelling sap should be avoided. If no sap is</p><p>observed, or if the sap that is observed is clear and without</p><p>aroma, remove a twenty-four-inch section, severing the</p><p>higher end first and then the lower end. If the lower end is cut</p><p>first, the water contained within the vine is drawn up by</p><p>capillary action and far less water will drain out by the time</p><p>the upper end is severed.</p><p>349</p><p>A Drinking water out of bamboo</p><p>350</p><p>Bamboo</p><p>351</p><p>Drinking water out of a vine</p><p>352</p><p>353</p><p>Tropical vines</p><p>354</p><p>355</p><p>Cactus</p><p>Once removed, hold the section of vine vertically and the</p><p>water in it will drain into a container (or a cupped hand),</p><p>where it should be evaluated. Any liquid that is colored</p><p>should not be consumed. Liquid that has an unpleasant aroma</p><p>other than a faint “woody” smell should not be consumed but</p><p>can be used to satisfy any hygiene needs. Taste a small</p><p>amount of the water. Water that has a disagreeable flavor</p><p>other than a slightly “earthy” or “woody” taste should not be</p><p>utilized for drinking. Hold a small amount of water in your</p><p>mouth for a few moments to determine if there is any burning</p><p>or other disagreeable sensation. If any irritation occurs, the</p><p>water should be discarded. Liquid that looks like water,</p><p>smells like water, and tastes like water is water and can be</p><p>safely consumed in large quantities without further</p><p>purification.</p><p>Cactus</p><p>Cactus as a source of water is often overrated. But if you</p><p>decide to approach one, use caution, as the thorns usually</p><p>cause infections. Use sharp sticks or knifes to handle cactus</p><p>safely. Any injury from a cactus plant should be treated</p><p>immediately to reduce the risk of infection.</p><p>Although all cacti can be used for gaining additional</p><p>moisture, it can take a great deal of work to open a full-sized</p><p>barrow cactus and fight with the spiny thorns that protect it. If</p><p>you decide to take on a cactus, do it in the cool of the</p><p>evening. Using caution, remove the top of the barrow cactus.</p><p>Once the top is off, you will find a white substance that</p><p>resembles watermelon meat inside (this is a liquid-filled inner</p><p>356</p><p>tissue). Using your knife, cut out hand-size chunks and</p><p>squeeze the moisture from them.</p><p>Prickly pears are easier to collect and prepare. Use a large</p><p>sharp stick and a good knife. Stab the round prickly pear with</p><p>the stick, and then cut it off with the knife. Next, use a fire to</p><p>burn the thorns off of the cactus. Make sure you sear the</p><p>cactus well to remove even the smallest thorns.</p><p>Once the thorns are removed, peel the green-or purple-colored</p><p>outer substance off, and eat the inside. Prickly pear meat</p><p>tastes so good that in Arizona and New Mexico people make</p><p>jellies and candies from it. Chew the moisture-filled inner</p><p>tissue, not the rough outer “bark.”</p><p>Getting Water from Plants</p><p>The use of clear plastic bags to enclose living vegetation and</p><p>capture the moisture transpired by the leaves can be an</p><p>effective method of collecting water. A plant’s survival is</p><p>dependent on its ability to gather water from the soil. This</p><p>water is passed up through the plant’s roots, stems, and</p><p>branches, and is finally released back to the atmosphere</p><p>through pores in the leaves as water vapor—a process called</p><p>evapotranspiration.</p><p>This water vapor can be collected with a clear plastic bag. It</p><p>works best when the vegetation is high enough to be off the</p><p>ground. Shake the vegetation to remove any insects, bird</p><p>droppings, or other materials that might contaminate the</p><p>water. Insert the limb or bush just like you would a hand into</p><p>a mitten. Then, tie the open end of the bag around the tree or</p><p>bush and seal the opening shut with a cord or duct tape. At the</p><p>357</p><p>closed end of the bag, tie a rock so the bag is weighted and</p><p>forms a collection point for the water.</p><p>Within a short period of time, water will begin to condense on</p><p>the inner surface of the bag, collect into water droplets, and</p><p>drain to the lowest point of the bag. The quantity of water</p><p>obtained in this manner is dependent on the amount of water</p><p>in the ground and the type of vegetation used. Other factors</p><p>that will determine water production include the amount of</p><p>sunlight available (it doesn’t work at night), the clarity of the</p><p>plastic bag, and the length of time the process is allowed to</p><p>work. It is not uncommon to find that two or three cups of</p><p>water, and sometimes much more, have accumulated over a</p><p>six-to eight-hour daylight period.</p><p>The best way to remove the water without disturbing the bag</p><p>is to insert a length of vinyl aquarium hose through the neck</p><p>of the bag down to the lowest point where water will collect.</p><p>The water can then be sucked out or siphoned into a</p><p>container. When enclosing vegetation in the plastic bag, it is</p><p>advisable to place a small stone in the lower corner where the</p><p>water will collect. The weight of the stone creates a</p><p>separation between the enclosed plant life and the water and</p><p>will keep plant saps from contaminating the water.</p><p>Similarly, leaves and small branches can be cut and placed in</p><p>a clear plastic bag. In this method, heat from the sun causes</p><p>the liquids in the foliage to be extracted and collect in the bag.</p><p>However, this method may produce water containing unsafe</p><p>toxins. Taste it first. If the water is bitter, do not drink it.</p><p>Solar Stills</p><p>358</p><p>The quantity of water produced by a solar still depends on the</p><p>amount of water contained in the ground. Because of this,</p><p>solar stills are not reliable for obtaining water in arid areas</p><p>since desert soils tend to hold little or no water. The amount</p><p>that a survivor is likely to obtain via this method must be</p><p>balanced against the amount of sweat lost while constructing</p><p>the device. However, in other types of climates, a solar still</p><p>can be very effective way of capturing water.</p><p>359</p><p>Solar still</p><p>To build a solar still, dig a hole approximately one meter</p><p>across and two feet deep. Dig a smaller hole, or slump, in the</p><p>middle of the hole. Place a container in the slump to collect</p><p>the water. Then, cover the hole with a plastic sheet and secure</p><p>the edges of the sheet with sand and rocks. Finally, place a</p><p>rock in the center of the sheet, so it sags.</p><p>During daylight hours the temperature in the hole will rise</p><p>due to the heat of the sun, thereby creating heat vapors which</p><p>will condensate on the inside of the plastic sheet and run</p><p>down. It then drops into the container in the sump hole.</p><p>You should never drink the following:</p><p>• Blood</p><p>• Urine</p><p>• Saltwater</p><p>• Alcohol</p><p>• Fresh sea ice</p><p>Fresh sea ice is milky or grey, has sharp edges, does not break</p><p>easily, and is extremely salty. Older sea ice is usually</p><p>salt-free, has a blue or black tint and rounded edges, and</p><p>breaks easily. Melted old sea ice is usually safe to drink, but</p><p>should be purified first, if possible.</p><p>Waterborne Contaminants</p><p>360</p><p>In most parts of the world, surface water is seldom pure.</p><p>There are five basic waterborne contaminants that you should</p><p>be particularly aware of: turbidity, toxic chemicals, bacteria,</p><p>viruses, and parasitic worms.</p><p>Turbidity</p><p>A measure of the cloudiness of water, or more specifically a</p><p>measure of the extent to which the intensity of light passing</p><p>through water is reduced by suspended matter in the water.</p><p>The sources of turbidity can be attributable to suspended and</p><p>colloidal material, and may be caused by several factors such</p><p>as: microorganisms and organic detritus, silica and other</p><p>sands and substances including zinc, iron and manganese</p><p>compounds, clay or silt, the result of natural processes of</p><p>erosion and/or as waste from various industries.</p><p>Toxic Chemicals</p><p>Dangerous and toxic chemicals include, among others,</p><p>pesticides, her-bicides, fertilizers from agricultural land and</p><p>runoff from household and industrial chemicals.</p><p>Bacteria, Viruses, Parasitic Worms</p><p>Giardia lamblia is a parasite that lives in the intestines of</p><p>humans and animals. It’s expelled from the body in feces, and</p><p>is found worldwide and in every region of the United States.</p><p>It causes giardiasis, which produces cramping, nausea, and</p><p>diarrhea. Symptoms may not show up for two weeks, and</p><p>once present can last as long as six weeks. If infected, get</p><p>medical attention as soon as possible.</p><p>361</p><p>Cryptosporidiosis is another waterborne illness caused by</p><p>parasites found in feces. The same symptoms as giardiasis can</p><p>be expected, but more severe. Both of these parasites can be</p><p>found in soil and vegetation as well, so wash anything you</p><p>plan on eating in purified water and remember: To give</p><p>your-self the best chance at survival, always boil your water,</p><p>even if it looks clean.</p><p>Giardia</p><p>Water Purification and Disinfection</p><p>362</p><p>To be safe to drink, water must be disinfected so that all</p><p>harmful micro-organisms are removed. To do this water must</p><p>be boiled, treated with chemicals, or filtered. “Disinfection”</p><p>of water should not be confused with “purification” of water.</p><p>Some of the methods used to purify water may not remove or</p><p>kill enough of the pathogens to ensure your safety. Make sure</p><p>the water you drink is disinfected.</p><p>The first step to disinfecting water is to select the cleanest,</p><p>clearest source of water available. Inorganic and organic</p><p>materials such as clay, silt, plankton, plant debris, and other</p><p>microscopic organisms will reduce the effectiveness of either</p><p>chemical or filtration disinfection. Chemicals used to disinfect</p><p>water will clump to any particulate in the water, thus reducing</p><p>its ability to disinfect the water. And water containing a lot of</p><p>material will quickly clog a filtration system. For the best</p><p>results, collect water from below the surface but not off the</p><p>bottom. When collecting murky water, allow it to settle and</p><p>then filter it through your shirttail, bandanna, or other piece of</p><p>cloth.</p><p>Remember:</p><p>Filtering water doesn’t always purify it, but it does reduce</p><p>particles and sediment and make the water taste better.</p><p>However, there are microbial purification filters on the</p><p>market that not only remove parasites such as Giardia, but</p><p>also kill waterborne bacteria and viruses. These types of</p><p>filters are optimal.</p><p>• Boiling is the best way of killing all microorganisms.</p><p>Boiling will not neutralize chemical pollutants.</p><p>363</p><p>• To purify water with chemicals, use water purification</p><p>tablets.</p><p>364</p><p>365</p><p>Boiling water</p><p>Boiling</p><p>Bringing water to a boil kills any organisms in it. In most</p><p>cases, water does not have to be boiled for a specific length of</p><p>time. The time it takes to bring water to a boil and the</p><p>temperature of the water when it boils is sufficient to kill</p><p>Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and any other waterborne</p><p>pathogens. While the boiling point of water decreases as you</p><p>climb higher, the temperature at which the water boils is still</p><p>hot enough to kill those organisms that might make you sick.</p><p>Continuing to boil the water wastes fuel, evaporates the</p><p>water, and delays consumption.</p><p>Overseas, especially in developing countries where river</p><p>systems are still a frequent method of sewage disposal,</p><p>boiling for a longer period of time (one or two minutes) is</p><p>advisable.</p><p>Chemical Purification</p><p>Chemicals that have the ability to disinfect water are known</p><p>as halogens, and include iodine and chlorine. The</p><p>effectiveness of halogens is directly related to their</p><p>concentration, the amount of time they are left in contact with</p><p>the water, and the temperature of the water—the colder the</p><p>water the longer the contact time.</p><p>Iodine</p><p>366</p><p>Comes in tablet and liquid forms. I recommend the tablets</p><p>because liquid iodine is messy and the containers are prone to</p><p>leaking. Potable Aqua tablets (which contain iodine) are used</p><p>by the U.S. military and many disaster relief agencies.</p><p>Iodine kills harmful bacteria, viruses, and most protozoan</p><p>cysts found in untreated water. (It is NOT effective on</p><p>Cryptosporidium.) The recommend dosage of two tablets per</p><p>quart or liter of water is sufficient to</p><p>kill organisms such as</p><p>Giardia. Once the tablets are placed in the water, they should</p><p>be allowed to sit for at least thirty minutes (even longer if the</p><p>water is very cold), and then shaken so that the iodine and</p><p>water mix thoroughly. The dissolved tablets will leave a slight</p><p>iodine taste in the water, which some find disagreeable.</p><p>Lemon juice, lemonade, Kool-Aid, or Gatorade powder can</p><p>be added to neutralize the iodine flavor.</p><p>Iodine tablets are commonly packaged with a second bottle of</p><p>ascorbic acid (PA Plus) tablets that deactivate the iodine,</p><p>making the water pleasant to drink. One tablet is usually</p><p>enough to reduce the iodine taste.</p><p>Iodine tablets deteriorate on exposure to heat, humidity, or</p><p>moisture. Over time, opening and closing the cap to remove</p><p>tablets results in the normally gray-colored tablets changing</p><p>to green or yellow. Once they have changed color, they have</p><p>lost their effectiveness and shouldn’t be used. Avoid using the</p><p>military iodine tablets that are sometimes found in military</p><p>surplus stores. The military got rid of them because their shelf</p><p>life has expired.</p><p>Advantage of iodine tablets:</p><p>367</p><p>• Easy to use</p><p>• Lightweight</p><p>• Inexpensive</p><p>Disadvantages:</p><p>• Not effective against Cryptosporidium cysts</p><p>• Some people are allergic to iodine</p><p>• People with known thyroid problems should not use iodine</p><p>• Iodine should not be used as a long-term (more than six</p><p>weeks) method of purifying water due to its potential harmful</p><p>effects on the thyroid.</p><p>Chlorine</p><p>An effective agent against bacteria, viruses, and, unlike</p><p>iodine, cysts such as Cryptosporidium. Another advantage of</p><p>using chlorine is that it leaves no aftertaste. On the downside,</p><p>a significant disadvantage of using chlorine tablets is that you</p><p>have to wait for four hours after adding a tablet before you</p><p>can drink the water.</p><p>Advantages of Chlorine tablets:</p><p>• No aftertaste</p><p>• Chlorine kills Cryptosporidium</p><p>368</p><p>Disadvantages:</p><p>• Four-hour contact time</p><p>Almost all laundry bleaches, including Clorox, contain five</p><p>and one-half percent sodium hypoclorite, which is a suitable</p><p>purification chemical for water. Put a small amount in a bottle</p><p>with an eyedropper dispenser and add it to your E&E kit.</p><p>Make sure you do not use powdered, scented, or other</p><p>non-pure bleaches.</p><p>LifeStraw</p><p>Before adding bleach to the water you want to purify, remove</p><p>all suspended material by filtration (through a cotton cloth,</p><p>improvised sand filter, or other means) or by simply allowing</p><p>sediment to settle to the bottom.</p><p>Add eight drops of bleach per gallon of water (or two drops</p><p>per quart). If the water was filtered, then shake it up to evenly</p><p>dispense the bleach, and wait fifteen minutes. If the water has</p><p>sediment on the bottom, don’t shake it up. Instead, allow the</p><p>treated water to stand for thirty minutes.</p><p>369</p><p>Because killing microorganisms also consumes the bleach,</p><p>you can tell by smelling whether or not there’s anything left</p><p>to kill. If there’s no chlorine odor then all of the bleach was</p><p>used up, meaning there could still be living organisms. Repeat</p><p>the dosage and allow the water to stand for another fifteen</p><p>minutes. If there is any chlorine odor, however faint, after</p><p>thirty minutes, all of the bacteria, viruses, and other</p><p>microorganisms are dead, and the bleach has done its job with</p><p>some to spare.</p><p>When treating cloudy, green, or really nasty water (swamp</p><p>water, for example), start with sixteen drops of bleach per</p><p>gallon of water (or four drops per quart). Smell the water. If</p><p>there’s a faint odor of chlorine, the water is drinkable. If not,</p><p>then repeat the treatment.</p><p>Treating Larger Quantities of Water</p><p>A teaspoon of bleach treats about 7 ½ gallons of clear water</p><p>or about four gallons of dirty water. Therefore, a tablespoon</p><p>of bleach treats about twenty gallons of clear water or about</p><p>ten gallons of dirty water. A quarter cup of bleach will purify</p><p>about ninety gallons of clear water or forty-five gallons of</p><p>dirty water.</p><p>LifeStraw</p><p>The LifeStraw is a portable filtration device that enables you</p><p>to safely drink directly from any fresh water source. The</p><p>straw itself is about eleven inches long, less than one inch</p><p>around, and looks like a jumbo drinking straw. One end has</p><p>the narrow mouthpiece; the other goes directly into the water</p><p>370</p><p>source. Each LifeStraw lasts for 185 gallons, roughly the</p><p>amount of water needed for one person per year.</p><p>The filter is designed to eliminate 100 percent of waterborne</p><p>bacteria, almost ninety-nine percent of viruses, and particles</p><p>as small as fifteen microns.</p><p>371</p><p>WATER</p><p>372</p><p>9</p><p>“On the occasion of every accident that befalls you,</p><p>remember to turn to yourself and inquire what power you</p><p>have for turning it to use.”</p><p>—Epictetus</p><p>Shelters</p><p>A healthy human can survive for several weeks without food</p><p>and several days without water, but in many cases only</p><p>several hours without proper shelter from the elements. After</p><p>water, shelter is a critical need in terms of your survival.</p><p>From keeping you protected from the elements to providing a</p><p>place to rest, wilderness shelters serve a key role in survival</p><p>situations. Not only do they provide for physical needs, but</p><p>they also help create a sense of home in the wilderness.</p><p>Your environment and the equipment you carry with you will</p><p>determine the type of shelter you’re able to build. Before you</p><p>head out, evaluate the weather in the area you’re going to be</p><p>in and to what extremes it is likely to reach. Shelters can be</p><p>built in wooded areas, barren plains, jungles, deserts, and</p><p>snow-covered mountains. Several items found in a decent</p><p>survival kit—such as a Tyvex and a survival blanket—will</p><p>help immensely. Wooded areas provide timber for shelter</p><p>373</p><p>construction, fuel for fire, concealment from observation, and</p><p>protection from the wind.</p><p>Be careful not to damage your waterproof gear. Instead of</p><p>poking holes in a tarp to tie it off, push a small pebble up</p><p>from under the tarp, and tie off around it. Try using rocks</p><p>instead of stakes to hold down corners.</p><p>Size and Location</p><p>The key to making a successful wilderness shelter is choosing</p><p>a good location. In most cases, higher elevations are exposed</p><p>to much more wind than valleys and lower areas. And don’t</p><p>be fooled by the air temperature. While a thermometer might</p><p>indicate that the air temperature has increased several degrees</p><p>by moving to higher ground, the temperature as far as your</p><p>body is concerned is likely to have dropped twenty to thirty</p><p>degrees because of the windchill factor.</p><p>A good location for building a wilderness shelter is one that</p><p>1) provides easy access to ample building materials, including</p><p>dead sticks, leaves, and grasses; and is 2) away from major</p><p>hazards such falling branches, avalanche zones, pooling</p><p>water, and insect nests. You also want a location that has a</p><p>large enough flat area to allow you to lie down and sleep</p><p>comfortably.</p><p>A common mistake people make when building wilderness</p><p>survival shelters is that they make them too large. Not only</p><p>does this require more materials, effort, and time to construct,</p><p>but it often ends up being cold due to the amount of space on</p><p>the inside. As a general rule, build your shelter so that it’s not</p><p>much bigger than you are and gives you just enough room to</p><p>374</p><p>lie down. This will allow your body heat to keep it warmer</p><p>than the ambient temperature.</p><p>All shelters should be constructed with safety in mind. Large,</p><p>strong branches can provide the initial framework for many</p><p>types of survival shelters. Typically, they should be strong</p><p>enough to easily support the weight of an adult. This is</p><p>especially important when constructing lean-to and debris</p><p>hut-style shelters.</p><p>Whether you’re in a hot and sunny environment, a cold and</p><p>wet forest, or on a snow-covered mountain, insulation and</p><p>cover can keep you protected from the elements. Use leaves,</p><p>grasses, small sticks, ferns, and pine needles to provide</p><p>insulation. Pile on as much as you can. Add bark or soil to the</p><p>top and sides of your shelter to create a barrier from cold</p><p>wind and rain.</p><p>In cool and cold environments, the primary</p><p>purpose of your</p><p>shelter should be to help you stay warm and avoid</p><p>hypothermia. With wilderness survival shelters, there are</p><p>typically two heat sources: your body heat (and that from</p><p>others with you), or fire. Wilderness shelters that rely on body</p><p>heat as the primary heat source (such as a debris hut), need to</p><p>be small on the inside and have lots of extra insulating debris.</p><p>If you plan on using a fire inside your shelter, carefully plan</p><p>how to tend it throughout night, and be sure to collect a full</p><p>night’s worth of firewood before last light.</p><p>Never sleep directly on the ground. Make a mattress from</p><p>pine boughs, grass, leaves, or other insulating material to keep</p><p>the ground from absorbing your body heat. And never fall</p><p>asleep before turning off your lamp or stove.</p><p>375</p><p>Carbon Monoxide Poisoning</p><p>Carbon monoxide poisoning is colorful, odorless, can be</p><p>deadly, and can result from a fire burning in an unventilated</p><p>shelter. Remember that any open flame will generate carbon</p><p>monoxide. Always double-check your ventilation. Even in a</p><p>ventilated shelter, smoldering embers can cause carbon</p><p>monoxide poisoning. In most cases, there are no symptoms.</p><p>Unconsciousness and death can occur without warning.</p><p>Sometimes, however, pressure at the temples, burning of the</p><p>eyes, headache, pounding pulse, drowsiness, or nausea may</p><p>occur. The one characteristic, visible sign of carbon monoxide</p><p>poisoning is a cherry-red coloring in the tissues of the lips,</p><p>mouth, and inside of the eyelids. Get into fresh air at once if</p><p>you experience any of these symptoms.</p><p>376</p><p>Tarp shelter</p><p>377</p><p>Bamboo hut</p><p>Shelter Types</p><p>There are many types of field-expedient shelters to consider,</p><p>including natural ones such as caves, hollow stumps and logs,</p><p>and those that are relatively easy to build, including debris</p><p>huts, lean-tos, scout pits, and snow shelters.</p><p>Debris Huts</p><p>These are often the easiest and most practical types of shelter</p><p>to build in any type of environment.</p><p>378</p><p>1. Find a long, sturdy pole to serve as the main beam of your</p><p>hut. It should be 1 ½ to 2 times your height. You can also use</p><p>a fallen tree. Look for something—a rock, tree stump, or tree</p><p>with a forked branch— that’s strong enough to hold the main</p><p>beam off the ground. It should be a little taller than you are</p><p>when sitting.</p><p>2. Lean smaller poles or branches against both sides of your</p><p>main beam at a forty-five-degree angle. Place them close</p><p>together and fill in the space between them with smaller twigs</p><p>and branches.</p><p>3. Cover this framework with dead leaves, dry ferns,</p><p>evergreen branches, grass, or whatever other materials you</p><p>can find. Keep piling on insulation materials until the sides of</p><p>your shelter are at least three feet thick.</p><p>4. Place another layer of small, light branches over the outside</p><p>of the hut to prevent your insulation from blowing away.</p><p>5. Put a one-foot layer of debris inside your shelter, and</p><p>choose materials that will be soft enough to sleep on.</p><p>6. At the entrance to your shelter, which should face away</p><p>from the prevailing wind, build a pile of insulating material</p><p>that you can drag in place once you are inside and can serve</p><p>as a door. You can also build a door out of other types of</p><p>material in the vicinity. You can, for example, make a door by</p><p>gathering finger-sized pieces of wood and lashing them into a</p><p>grid pattern. Make two grids, then place debris between them.</p><p>Lash the grids together and you have an insulated door.</p><p>379</p><p>Grass and log hut</p><p>Lean-Tos</p><p>These are easy to build, suitable to most types of terrain, and</p><p>should always be built with their back toward the wind.</p><p>380</p><p>1. Insert two Y-shaped sticks into the ground, about one foot</p><p>deep. Each should stand about three feet high.</p><p>2. Take a long branch, about six feet long, and use it as a</p><p>ridgepole. Lay the ridgepole between the two forks.</p><p>3. Fill in the roof area with other straight sticks, with one end</p><p>tied at the top and the other buried into the ground. You now</p><p>have the skeleton of the shelter.</p><p>4. Cover the skeleton with whatever material is available: for</p><p>example, spruce twigs, grass, bracken fern, and large leaves.</p><p>Always start at the bottom of the shelter and work upwards</p><p>when thatching so that if it rains, the water will run over the</p><p>joints and will not leak through onto you. Try to make life as</p><p>easy as possible by using any standing or fallen timber, or a</p><p>wall, as one side of the shelter.</p><p>5. If heat is needed, build a fire in front of your shelter.</p><p>381</p><p>Tarp lean-to</p><p>382</p><p>Subterranean shelter covered with a tarp.</p><p>Scout Pits</p><p>There are unlimited variations of scout pits. Some can be</p><p>constructed as hybrids with other shelters, and some partially</p><p>above ground. Utilizing natural pits can significantly reduce</p><p>the dig time. You can, for example, use a pit created where a</p><p>tree has fallen over and pulled out the earth with its roots.</p><p>1. Find a flat, dry piece of land and dig a rectangular coffin</p><p>shape that’s a little wider and longer than your body. Preserve</p><p>the top six inches of soil to serve as the ceiling.</p><p>2. Dig down to the length of your hips.</p><p>3. Dig a wider six-inch-deep ledge around the top to hold the</p><p>roof in place.</p><p>4. Create a ceiling made of logs that at are a minimum of</p><p>three inches in diameter. Leave a small entrance hole.</p><p>5. Cover the logs with soil and leaves.</p><p>383</p><p>Snow cave</p><p>Ice and Snow Shelters</p><p>A snow cave, hut, or igloo can provide vital warmth and</p><p>shelter in the snow.</p><p>Snow Cave</p><p>384</p><p>Find a wind swale, or cornice face, that allows you to dig</p><p>horizontally. This will save you the time of digging down and</p><p>then sideways.</p><p>If you find a good semivertical face, test to see if you can cut</p><p>uniform blocks of snow with your shovel. If so, start with a</p><p>fairly large opening, and enlarge into your sleeping chamber</p><p>as soon as practical. When the cave is dug, wall the opening</p><p>back up with the blocks of snow, leaving a small</p><p>entranceway.</p><p>Be sure your sleeping chamber is higher than the door so that</p><p>it can trap warm air from your body.</p><p>Before starting work, strip off all nonessential clothing so it</p><p>stays dry, especially any down gear. If you have hardshell</p><p>layers, wear them over nearly nothing while you’re working.</p><p>Once you’re digging inside the entrance tunnel and beyond,</p><p>you’ll be amazed at how warm you become.</p><p>Once you are in the cave for the night, place your dry clothing</p><p>next to your skin and your damp clothing away from your</p><p>body. Use your backpack as a seat. Keep your boots on but</p><p>loosen them as much as possible. If you feel your feet getting</p><p>cold, take the liners out of the boots and store them under</p><p>your clothing. DO NOT leave your liners in your boots, as</p><p>you may be borderline hypothermic in the morning, and</p><p>placing your cold feet in frozen boots could cause frostbite.</p><p>If you have a stove, you need a ceiling vent in your cave to</p><p>prevent carbon monoxide poisoning. If you don’t have a stove</p><p>and your cave is large with an open doorway you probably</p><p>don’t need a vent, but consider a small one anyhow to keep</p><p>385</p><p>the air drier and fresher. You can always plug it with a spare</p><p>piece of clothing or with snow.</p><p>Improvised Snow Trench</p><p>If you’re short on time and you have skis with you, simply</p><p>dig a trench, lay your skis over it, and cover the skis with</p><p>snow blocks. Keep the trench as small as possible so you can</p><p>plug the end with a backpack or snow blocks once you’re</p><p>inside. The trench works better if you have a ground cover</p><p>and sleeping bags, while the snow cave works better if you’re</p><p>short on gear. The main problem with building a snow cave is</p><p>getting wet. If you’re short on clothing, this is a major</p><p>concern.</p><p>Note: In extreme cold, DO NOT use metal, such as an aircraft</p><p>fuselage, for shelter. The metal will conduct away from the</p><p>shelter what little heat you can generate.</p><p>Snow Shelter</p><p>1. Clear a circular area in the snow about seven or eight feet</p><p>across.</p><p>2. Use a shovel or other digging tool to mix up the snow in</p><p>the clearing, making sure to bring snow from bottom layers</p><p>up higher and vice versa. Mixing snow of different</p><p>temperatures will facilitate</p><p>the hardening process, which is</p><p>called sintering.</p><p>3. Make a six-foot-high pile of snow on top of the clearing</p><p>and shape it into a dome. The snow should be heaped, not</p><p>packed.</p><p>386</p><p>4. Allow the mound to sinter for one to three hours depending</p><p>on the weather and snow composition.</p><p>5. Begin to hollow out the mound once it has hardened. Dig</p><p>straight in to create your initial opening; then dig at an</p><p>upward angle in order to make an elevated sleeping area. This</p><p>will allow cold air from inside to flow down and out of the</p><p>shelter.</p><p>6. Use the snow you dig out to make a windbreak in front of</p><p>the entrance, or heap it onto the exterior of the shelter to</p><p>thicken its walls and increase the available interior space.</p><p>7. Smooth out the interior walls and ceiling when the</p><p>hollowed area is large enough. The walls of your shelter</p><p>should be at least one-to two-feet thick.</p><p>8. Poke a ventilation hole through the top of the dome using a</p><p>ski pole or long stick. Make sure this hole stays clear of ice</p><p>and snow.</p><p>9. Use a ski pole, sticks, or other large clearly visible item to</p><p>mark the outside of the entrance in case it gets covered up</p><p>while you’re away. Keep your shovel inside while you sleep</p><p>in case you need to dig your way out in the morning.</p><p>10. Use your pack to block the entrance of the shelter, but</p><p>leave space for air to flow in and out.</p><p>11. Don’t cook inside your shelter. This can cause a lethal</p><p>buildup of carbon monoxide, even with a ventilation hole.</p><p>387</p><p>12. Building a shelter is hard work, so expect to sweat. This</p><p>can cause hypothermia. If you have an extra set of dry</p><p>clothes, change into them after you’ve finished building your</p><p>shelter.</p><p>Matches</p><p>The Importance of Insulation</p><p>Knowing how to insulate yourself with layers of material can</p><p>mean the difference between life and death. What you want to</p><p>388</p><p>do is trap air between your body and outside. Fibrous plants,</p><p>grasses, layers of bark, pine needles, leaves, wood, and even</p><p>snow are types of materials that you can use to insulate</p><p>yourself and your shelter.</p><p>To insulate your shelter, use the materials to build a thick</p><p>layer over and inside your dwelling. Layering the materials</p><p>will help trap air and keep more heat inside your shelter.</p><p>Make sure you also use a thick layer of insulating materials</p><p>inside your makeshift mattress. Doing so will insulate your</p><p>body from the cold ground.</p><p>Urban Insulation</p><p>Urban environments contain numerous types of materials that</p><p>you can use to keep warm—including cardboard, foam,</p><p>cloths, plastic, bedding materials, and so on. In an emergency</p><p>you can use these to turn a small room or closet into an</p><p>insulted fortress. Couch cushions, blankets, towels, and</p><p>mattresses can all be used to add extra insulation to your little</p><p>area. Line your clothing with crumpled newspapers, paper</p><p>towels, or any other insulating materials that you can find.</p><p>Fire Starting</p><p>Knowing how to build a fire is an essential survival skill. Fire</p><p>is good for:</p><p>1. Keeping warm</p><p>2. Boiling water</p><p>3. Drying wet clothes</p><p>389</p><p>4. Keeping insects and some animals away</p><p>5. To signal your position</p><p>6. Cooking</p><p>Always have at least two methods of starting a fire with you</p><p>at all times.</p><p>Building a Fire</p><p>To build a typical campfire, you’ll need three types of fuel:</p><p>tinder, kindling, and logs. Always have twice as much of each</p><p>as you think you’ll need ready before you ever strike a match.</p><p>The most difficult part is getting the first flame to take to your</p><p>tinder. Once you have a nice little pile of tinder material</p><p>burning, it’s relatively easy to get the rest of the fire</p><p>going—first with kindling (big sticks), then with logs.</p><p>390</p><p>A Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE)</p><p>instructor with the Center for Security Forces builds a</p><p>fire for the students to sit around during a fire building</p><p>lesson at a training site in Warner Springs, Calif.</p><p>391</p><p>Leaves</p><p>392</p><p>393</p><p>A Logs and sticks</p><p>Logs</p><p>Collect dry wood. Start by looking for the dead branches at</p><p>the very bottom of evergreen trees. Take the smallest</p><p>branches and shred them with a knife or your fingers to use as</p><p>tinder. Anything that will ignite quickly is a good source of</p><p>394</p><p>tinder—dead grass, dried moss or fern, leaves, or a strip of</p><p>cloth from the tail of your shirt.</p><p>Place your tinder in the center and then build a teepee of</p><p>small dry twigs around it. Once this is burning, slowly feed</p><p>your fire with larger and larger pieces of wood. Always make</p><p>sure the fire is burning freely before you progress to a larger</p><p>piece of wood. Once this fire is burning, do not let it go out.</p><p>Aside from providing heat and protection, it can also act as a</p><p>signal to anyone who is searching for you.</p><p>395</p><p>Wood chips</p><p>396</p><p>Grass</p><p>Tinder</p><p>Sources of good tinder include a multitude of mosses, grasses,</p><p>and other thin and fibrous materials that can be easily ignited.</p><p>They need to be dry. When walking along in the woods,</p><p>collect wispy looking materials and put them in a shirt pocket,</p><p>as body heat dries them out in a hurry. Here are some great</p><p>sources of tinder that will light in just about any conditions:</p><p>397</p><p>• Cat-o’-nine tails. The large bulb at the top of this plant has</p><p>enough “fluff” to start a LOT of fires.</p><p>• The large, black, lumpy growths on the sides of birch trees</p><p>are caused by a type of fungus that burns very well. Each</p><p>lump is orange to brownish on the inside and can be ignited</p><p>with a spark to form a very nice coal. This material can also</p><p>be used to transport fire from place to place.</p><p>• Low-lying, gnarly pine shrubs and trees (common in sandy</p><p>soils) build up amazing amounts of sap. The wood becomes</p><p>infused with it and is very flammable. Dead branches, in</p><p>particular, are loaded with sap, and you should use these, as</p><p>even a small piece can be used to start many fires. Shavings</p><p>from this type of wood will ignite with nothing but a good</p><p>spark. A little goes a long way.</p><p>• Pocket lint is very flammable. It only takes a spark.</p><p>There are several types of tinder that are easy to prepare and</p><p>will serve you well if you find yourself trapped in the</p><p>wilderness. Dryer lint and cotton balls, for example, both</p><p>work well, especially when they’re mixed with Vaseline. Heat</p><p>the Vaseline (either in a microwave or in a pan on the stove)</p><p>until it turns to liquid, then mash as much dryer lint or cotton</p><p>balls as will fit and soak up the liquid. These can be kept in a</p><p>plastic bag, aluminum foil, Altoids type container, or any</p><p>other small container until ready to use.</p><p>398</p><p>Moss</p><p>399</p><p>400</p><p>Cattails</p><p>401</p><p>402</p><p>Chaga mushroom on birch tree</p><p>Bush</p><p>403</p><p>Shrub</p><p>404</p><p>Rangely, Maine—A student at the Navy Survival,</p><p>Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE) school breaks</p><p>birch bark to start a fire.</p><p>Image</p><p>Building a Fire in the Snow</p><p>This can be a little tricky, but you’ll be successful if you</p><p>follow these basic rules.</p><p>405</p><p>• Most fires will quickly heat the surrounding area, but when</p><p>wind is present, most of the heat will be carried off. A fire in</p><p>the wind is also going to consume about twice as much wood.</p><p>Make sure you find a place to build your fire that’s sheltered</p><p>from the wind and elements.</p><p>• Gather all of your wood first and then organize it by size so</p><p>you’ll be able to find the right piece when you need it.</p><p>• Just because wood is buried under snow, that doesn’t mean</p><p>it’s not dry enough to burn, especially if the snow is light and</p><p>fluffy, which means it has less moisture content.</p><p>• Break a stick to see if it’s dry inside. If it cracks, it most</p><p>likely is. But if you’re hiking after a winter rain, that</p><p>crackling snap could be ice. If that’s the case, you’ll need to</p><p>look for dry wood in protected areas, like under thick</p><p>vegetation or in the hollow of an old tree stump.</p><p>• Sample wood from different places around your site. Keep</p><p>track of what wood you found where, so you’ll know where</p><p>to return for more of the good stuff.</p><p>• Wet or damp wood can take a long time to get started.</p><p>That’s why you should always take some kind of fire starter</p><p>with you. You’ll find fire starters at most outdoor sports</p><p>stores, army-navy stores,</p><p>desalinating water,</p><p>38</p><p>finding sustenance, and how to properly release from a</p><p>parachute drag.</p><p>Students in the Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape</p><p>(SERE) carry partners to obtain a 1,000-meter pace count</p><p>during land navigation in the survival portion course at a</p><p>training site in Warner Springs, Calif. The SERE course</p><p>provided training in evading capture, survival skills and</p><p>the Code of the U.S. Fighting Force.</p><p>Phase One consists of approximately ten days of academic</p><p>instruction on the code of conduct and in SERE techniques</p><p>39</p><p>that incorporate both classroom learning and hands-on field</p><p>craft.</p><p>Phase Two is a five-day field training exercise in which the</p><p>students practice their survival and evasion skills by</p><p>procuring food and water, constructing fires and shelters, and</p><p>evading tracker dogs and aggressor forces for long distances.</p><p>Phase Three takes place in the resistance-training laboratory,</p><p>a mock prisoner-of-war camp, where students are tested on</p><p>their individual and collective abilities to resist interrogation</p><p>and exploitation and to properly apply the six articles of the</p><p>code of conduct in a realistic captivity scenario. The course</p><p>culminates with a day of debriefings in which the students</p><p>receive individual and group feedback from the instructors.</p><p>These critiques help students process everything they have</p><p>been through to solidify the skills they applied properly and to</p><p>correct areas that need adjustment.</p><p>SERE Training Objectives</p><p>Within SERE training, every student is taught to understand</p><p>and practice techniques in the following procedures:</p><p>40</p><p>Rangely, Maine—A student at the Navy Survival,</p><p>Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE) school repacks</p><p>his gear after a lesson.</p><p>41</p><p>U.S. Navy SERE training is conducted at the navy’s remote</p><p>training site in Warner Springs, California, and in the</p><p>mountains of Bath, Maine.</p><p>Besides teaching survival, SERE is also an advanced code of</p><p>conduct course. All military personnel get their initial code of</p><p>conduct instruction during basic training, where they’re</p><p>taught an American service member’s legal responsibilities</p><p>regarding capture by enemy forces. But SERE training goes</p><p>far beyond that. Because the school is a combination of</p><p>courses designed for personnel with jobs that entail</p><p>greater-than-normal risks of being stranded behind enemy</p><p>lines or captured by enemy forces, students get a deeper</p><p>insight into the philosophies behind the code.</p><p>Article I</p><p>• I am an American fighting in the forces which guard my</p><p>country and our way of life. I am prepared to give my life in</p><p>their defense.</p><p>42</p><p>Article II</p><p>• I will never surrender of my own free will. If in command,</p><p>I will never surrender the members of my command while</p><p>they still have the means to resist.</p><p>Article III</p><p>• If I am captured, I will continue to resist by all means</p><p>available. I will make every effort to escape and aid others to</p><p>escape. I will accept neither parole nor special favors from the</p><p>enemy.</p><p>Article IV</p><p>• If I become a prisoner of war I will keep faith with my</p><p>fellow prisoners. I will give no information or take part in any</p><p>action which might be harmful to my comrades. If I am</p><p>senior, I will take command. If not, I will obey the lawful</p><p>orders of those appointed over me, and will back them up in</p><p>every way.</p><p>Article V</p><p>• When questioned, should I become a prisoner of war, I am</p><p>required to give name, rank, service number and date of birth.</p><p>I will evade answering further questions to the utmost of my</p><p>ability. I will make no oral or written statements disloyal to</p><p>my country and its allies or harmful to their cause.</p><p>Article VI</p><p>43</p><p>• I will never forget that I am an American, fighting for</p><p>freedom, responsible for my actions, and dedicated to the</p><p>principles which made my country free. I will trust in my God</p><p>and in the United States of America.</p><p>44</p><p>45</p><p>Warner Springs, Calif. U.S. Navy Survival, Evasion,</p><p>Resistance and Escape (SERE) instructors teach members</p><p>of Boy Scout Troop 806 of Coronado, Calif. how to trap</p><p>food to survive in the wilderness. Sailors from the Naval</p><p>Air Station North Island SERE detachment volunteered</p><p>to train the Boy Scouts.</p><p>The instruction starts with classroom work and then focuses</p><p>on real-world applications of the code of conduct. Following</p><p>the classroom part of the course, students begin to learn</p><p>methods of avoiding capture by the enemy. Eventually, they</p><p>are captured and enter resistance and escape training.</p><p>The SERE field instructors are highly motivated, well trained,</p><p>and possess an immense knowledge of the subject. As</p><p>instructors, they’re part naturalist, part guide, part</p><p>psychologist, and part mentor. Their expertise includes</p><p>techniques for surviving in the arctic, desert, open ocean,</p><p>jungle, and mountain regions, in combat and in captivity.</p><p>Much of the training at SERE School contains lessons learned</p><p>by service members who made it back across enemy lines or</p><p>spent time as prisoners of war. Their experience makes them</p><p>highly valued advisors.</p><p>During the field phase of the course, students are introduced</p><p>to specific methods of navigation through hostile territory.</p><p>The rule regarding navigating is twofold. First, you need to</p><p>figure out how to get where you’re going without being</p><p>spotted. Second, you have to reach specific locations on</p><p>schedule. With the clock ticking, caution sometimes has to be</p><p>sacrificed for speed, which can result in close calls.</p><p>46</p><p>Survival lessons are interspersed. These include: fire building,</p><p>trapping, creating shelters, and finding edible plants.</p><p>The SERE School Experience</p><p>The following are the impressions of an army soldier who</p><p>completed SERE training.</p><p>“Most of the modesty the students brought with them</p><p>disappears very quickly. When they sleep, they huddle</p><p>together to stay warm as the temperature dips into the</p><p>twenties and frost coats their packs. When they’re hiking,</p><p>they know that everyone else is just as hungry and thirsty as</p><p>they are. Not knowing what is coming next also bonds them.</p><p>When surprises occur, they must act as a team. There is a</p><p>chain of command for each group, as well as the entire class.</p><p>The leaders are doubly challenged, as they are responsible for</p><p>ensuring their team acts properly, no matter what comes up.</p><p>When there are lapses in leadership and issues could have</p><p>been avoided or resolved in the chain of command, the</p><p>instructors take the group leaders aside later to advise them on</p><p>appropriate responses.”</p><p>In his book, In the Company of Heroes, retired 160th Special</p><p>Operations Aviation Regiment pilot CW4 Mike Durant</p><p>reflected on the SERE training he received at Camp Mackall</p><p>in the winter of 1988 and the strength it gave him during his</p><p>eleven-day captivity in Somalia in October 1993: “I came</p><p>away (from SERE) with tools that I never believed I would</p><p>ever really need, but even in those first seconds of capture at</p><p>the crash site in Mogadishu, those lessons would come</p><p>rushing back at me. Throughout my captivity, I would</p><p>summon them nearly every hour . . . I thanked Nick Rowe</p><p>47</p><p>[Colonel Rowe developed the rigorous Survival, Evasion,</p><p>Resistance and Escape (SERE) training program] silently</p><p>every day, for the lessons I learned in SERE training. I asked</p><p>that God bless him, as I tried to plan my next move.” (Nick</p><p>Rowe died in 1989.)</p><p>Why Do Some Handle Stress Better Than Others?</p><p>Even though SERE School was a “theoretical setting,” it</p><p>taught me that some people are better at dealing with the</p><p>stresses and strains of life than others. Why?</p><p>Dr. Andy Morgan of Yale Medical School set out to find a</p><p>real-world laboratory where he could watch people under</p><p>incredible stress in reasonably controlled conditions. He</p><p>found one in southeastern North Carolina at Fort Bragg, home</p><p>of the Army’s elite Airborne and Special Forces. This is</p><p>where the Army’s renowned survival school (their version of</p><p>Navy SERE school) is located. It’s also where they practice</p><p>something called stress inoculation. Based on the concept of</p><p>vaccines, soldiers are exposed to pressure and suffering in</p><p>training in order to build up their immunity. It’s</p><p>or at convenience stores in many</p><p>rural areas. Look for tubes of fire ribbon, balls of wax mixed</p><p>with sawdust, or tablets made of petroleum.</p><p>• You can also prepare your own tinder out of laundry lint or</p><p>cotton balls as described above.</p><p>406</p><p>• Don’t bother using toilet paper for tinder, as it burns for</p><p>only a second.</p><p>• Pine needles and birch bark are great fire starters. Look for</p><p>downed stumps.</p><p>• Stove fuel can give your fire the kick it needs to get going.</p><p>Put the fuel on the fire before you light it, never after. Then</p><p>toss in a match—and stand back!</p><p>• If the snow isn’t too deep, dig a hole to make the fire on</p><p>solid ground. If the ground is completely covered with very</p><p>deep snow, tamp down the snow so it forms a slight</p><p>depression with a solid, hard platform in the middle. Then put</p><p>a layer of wood down on the snow, and build your fire on top</p><p>of that. Otherwise, your fire will sink into the snow and go</p><p>out before it gets going.</p><p>• When the fire is roaring, place damp wood around it so the</p><p>heat from the fire will dry it out. Now you’ll have a stash of</p><p>dry wood for later.</p><p>407</p><p>408</p><p>Rangely, Maine—A student at the Navy Survival,</p><p>Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE) school builds a</p><p>fire.</p><p>Collect fine twigs and then ignite the bundle off the</p><p>ground.</p><p>409</p><p>Winter cooking fire</p><p>410</p><p>Types of Fires</p><p>Lazy Man Fire</p><p>Maintaining a fire is just as important as starting one. If</p><p>you’re in a survival situation, you always want to save</p><p>energy. Don’t spend your time chopping firewood. Instead,</p><p>feed large branches and logs into the fire, and let the fire do</p><p>all the work. As the logs burn, move each farther into the fire.</p><p>It’s amazing how much wood you can gather when you’re not</p><p>wasting time chopping or sawing.</p><p>411</p><p>Teepee Fire</p><p>Build it with standing lengths of wood with tinder and</p><p>kindling in the middle. The teepee fire provides a steady, hot</p><p>heat source required for a reflecting oven. It requires a steady</p><p>supply of medium-sized pieces of wood.</p><p>Pinwheel Fire</p><p>Lay one-to two-inch-diameter pieces of wood in a pinwheel</p><p>pattern with tinder and kindling in the middle. This is an ideal</p><p>fire for cooking with a fry pan. Build it inside a ring of rocks</p><p>to hold your fry pan.</p><p>Log Cabin Fire</p><p>Stack four-to six-inch diameter pieces of wood in a</p><p>crosshatch pattern. Provides lots of air circulation and results</p><p>in quick supply of cooking coals for roasting or grilling meat.</p><p>Keyhole Fire</p><p>The keyhole is a great multipurpose fire when you have a</p><p>larger group of survivors. Construct a rock fire pit in the</p><p>shape of a keyhole. Next, build a teepee fire in the round part.</p><p>At the end, build a log cabin fire. The tall flames of the teepee</p><p>fire will provide light and heat once the coals of the log cabin</p><p>fire die down.</p><p>Dakota Pit Fire</p><p>This is an efficient fire that uses very little fuel and can warm</p><p>you and your food easily. Having it contained in a hole makes</p><p>412</p><p>it is easy to hunch over for warmth or to place food or water</p><p>over it for cooking. The second hole is to allow oxygen to get</p><p>to the fire, thus preventing it from being easily smothered.</p><p>The scale of the fire depends solely on the size of the pits you</p><p>dig.</p><p>Note: This type of fire does not throw off much light and is</p><p>primarily used for warmth.</p><p>Having selected a likely area in which to dig the fire hole,</p><p>first remove a plug of soil and plant roots in the form of a</p><p>circle about ten or twelve inches in diameter. Continue</p><p>digging straight down to a depth of about one foot, being sure</p><p>to save the plug and the soil you removed for replacement</p><p>later on.</p><p>1. Extend the base of the fire chamber outward a couple of</p><p>inches in all directions so that it can accommodate longer</p><p>pieces of firewood. This saves time and energy in breaking up</p><p>firewood into suitable lengths, and also has the effect of</p><p>allowing larger and therefore hotter fires.</p><p>2. Starting about a foot away from the edge of the fire pit, dig</p><p>a six-inch diameter air tunnel at an angle so that it intersects</p><p>with the base of the fire pit. The effect is a jug-shaped hole at</p><p>the base of which you place firewood. The neck of the jug</p><p>will serve as a chimney of sorts, the function of which is to</p><p>increase the draft and concentrate the heat of the fire into the</p><p>small opening.</p><p>3. Now it’s time to make the fire hole airway. First determine</p><p>the general direction of the wind, as you want to construct the</p><p>airway on the side of the hole that faces the wind.</p><p>413</p><p>4. Dig your six-inch-diameter airway tunnel starting about</p><p>one foot away from the edge of the fire hole. Angle its</p><p>construction so that the tunnel intersects with the base of the</p><p>fire chamber. Be sure to save the plug containing the</p><p>vegetation and roots as well as the loose soil that you remove.</p><p>5. Partially fill the fire pit chamber with dry combustible</p><p>kindling materials and light the fire. Gradually add sticks so</p><p>that a strong hot fire is maintained.</p><p>Students in the Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape</p><p>(SERE) course dig holes to make Dakota fire pits as part</p><p>414</p><p>of the food preparation lesson at a training site in Warner</p><p>Springs, Calif.</p><p>Pit fire</p><p>415</p><p>SHELTER AND FIRE</p><p>416</p><p>10</p><p>“Luck favors the prepared mind.”</p><p>—Louis Pasteur</p><p>Since food ranks third on the basic survival skills priorities</p><p>list, don’t worry about looking for food until you have a good</p><p>water source and adequate shelter.</p><p>Although you can live three weeks or so without food, you’ll</p><p>need an adequate amount to stay healthy. Without food, your</p><p>mental and physical capabilities will deteriorate and you’ll</p><p>become weak. Food replenishes the substances that your body</p><p>burns and provides energy, vitamins, minerals, salts, and</p><p>other elements essential to good health.</p><p>The average person needs approximately 2,000 calories per</p><p>day to function at a minimum level. To varying degrees both</p><p>plant and animals (including fish) will provide the calories,</p><p>carbohydrates, fats, and proteins needed for normal daily</p><p>body functions.</p><p>Most natural environments are filled with a variety of items</p><p>that can meet our nutritional needs. Wild plants often provide</p><p>the most readily available foods, though insects and small</p><p>wild game can also support dietary needs in a survival</p><p>situation.</p><p>417</p><p>Meat and fish are good sources of protein and fat and provide</p><p>virtually everything a long-term survivor would need.</p><p>However, at the first stage of a survival situation, edible</p><p>plants are the most appropriate diet as plants are easily</p><p>accessible and contain the necessary carbohydrates.</p><p>In a survival situation, take advantage of the food sources</p><p>available. Try to vary your diet to make sure you get the</p><p>appropriate proportions of fat, protein, carbohydrates,</p><p>minerals, and vitamins.</p><p>Seek the more abundant and more easily obtained wildlife,</p><p>such as insects, crustaceans, mollusks, fish, and reptiles,</p><p>while you are preparing traps and snares for larger game.</p><p>Basic Food Survival Rules:</p><p>1. If it walks, crawls, swims, or flies, it is most likely safe to</p><p>eat and will provide the nutrition and energy your body</p><p>requires.</p><p>2. ALL fur-bearing mammals are safe to eat and will provide</p><p>you with nutrients and calories.</p><p>3. ALL six-legged insects are safe to eat and will provide you</p><p>with nutrients and calories.</p><p>4. DO NOT eat spiders.</p><p>5. Almost all freshwater fish and birds are safe to eat and will</p><p>provide you with nutrients and calories.</p><p>418</p><p>6. Use EXTREME CAUTION with plants. Don’t eat them</p><p>unless you know they’re safe.</p><p>7. DO NOT eat mushrooms, unless you are absolutely certain</p><p>it is nontoxic, or any plant that has a milky sap.</p><p>Food Tips</p><p>A single emergency food bar can contain up to 3,600 calories</p><p>and is designed to provide enough nutrition to last up to three</p><p>days. Stash a few of these in your E&E kit, your second line</p><p>gear, or in your go-bag.</p><p>Also easy to carry and useful are beef and chicken bouillon</p><p>cubes. On a cold night out in the wild, a cup of hot broth will</p><p>warm you up nicely.</p><p>Hard candy, i.e., Jolly Ranchers, offers a quick hit of sugar,</p><p>which can be very helpful.</p><p>Edible Insects</p><p>Most insects are rich in protein</p><p>and fat, the two most vital</p><p>nutritional needs for survival. Ants, grubs, grasshoppers,</p><p>dragonflies, worms, and centipedes are edible.</p><p>Some aren’t the most appetizing and some taste pretty good.</p><p>A good way to get over your natural resistance to eating</p><p>insects is to dry them by the fire and add them to whatever</p><p>you cook. I recommend that all insects be boiled or roasted to</p><p>kill parasites.</p><p>419</p><p>Insects with bright colors should be avoided, as they might be</p><p>toxic.</p><p>Any of the creatures listed below, once cooked, can be served</p><p>with soy sauce or salt or mixed into a stir-fry or stew made of</p><p>plants.</p><p>Grasshoppers</p><p>According to entomologists, a single large grasshopper is</p><p>comprised of sixty percent protein and 6.1 grams of fat.</p><p>Eating a handful of them roasted (not raw) is nearly the</p><p>equivalent of consuming a hamburger. Crickets are second</p><p>best. Remove the legs and wings, then roast them on a rock</p><p>slab in the center of your fire for twenty minutes until crispy.</p><p>Boiling for five minutes is another good way of cooking</p><p>them. To catch them in the wild, use a three-foot section from</p><p>a flexible, green willow shoot and swat them like you would a</p><p>fly.</p><p>Ants</p><p>Boil the pupae (whitish eggs found in the nest) to make a</p><p>hearty stew. The best way to collect pupae in large numbers is</p><p>by carefully digging into the top layer of an anthill during the</p><p>early morning. Make sure to avoid fire-ant mounds! One or</p><p>two scrapes off a small section of the hill should expose the</p><p>egg chamber. After collecting the eggs, cover the mound back</p><p>up with dirt so the colony can recover.</p><p>420</p><p>Hard candy</p><p>421</p><p>Flame skimmer dragonfly</p><p>422</p><p>Grasshopper on a flower</p><p>423</p><p>Ant</p><p>424</p><p>Grubs</p><p>425</p><p>Pine cones: About twenty species of pine trees grow pine</p><p>cones that have seeds large enough to be food for humans.</p><p>426</p><p>Place the pine cone next to a fire so it opens up. Then the</p><p>seeds can be harvested easily and eaten.</p><p>Puffball mushroom</p><p>Grubs, larva, worms</p><p>427</p><p>Earthworms can be dried like jerky and added to stew. Also,</p><p>grubs found under or in rotten logs are relatively easy to</p><p>collect, and can be added to a stew. Grubs, worms, and larva</p><p>can also serve as excellent fishing bait.</p><p>Plants</p><p>Plants, roots, and green vegetables can provide carbohydrates</p><p>and enough protein to keep the body functioning at normal</p><p>efficiency, even in the arctic. Nuts and seeds are also an</p><p>excellent source of proteins and natural oils.</p><p>Edible Plants</p><p>Be careful and don’t eat any plant that you’re not sure is safe.</p><p>Some plants will poison you on contact, ingestion, or by</p><p>absorption or inhalation. Also, many edible plants have</p><p>deadly relatives and look-alikes.</p><p>As a general rule, before you head out into the wild, know at</p><p>least three edible plants in the area that you are traveling.</p><p>Learn them by their leaves, stalks/stems, and roots, as all</p><p>three are part of the plant, might have use, and will confirm</p><p>identity of the plants. Take into account the seasons when</p><p>they grow and soils where they grow, and any relative plants</p><p>that are around that might lead you to them.</p><p>I also recommend knowing at least three plants that are</p><p>medicinal in some significant way and that are easily</p><p>identified, readily available, and most useful based on your</p><p>needs.</p><p>428</p><p>Nettle</p><p>429</p><p>Acacia</p><p>430</p><p>Agave</p><p>Common edible plants include cattail roots, acorns, clover,</p><p>dandelions, almost all grasses that are seed bearing, and the</p><p>inner bark of trees such as poplar, willows, birches and</p><p>conifers.</p><p>431</p><p>Common and Abundant Plant Food Sources in North</p><p>America</p><p>A manzanita bush is a great food source in the wild. The</p><p>Mono Indians used them for their fruit, which they dried or</p><p>used for drinks. If you come across the bush, chew the outer</p><p>bit of the fruit, then spit out the hard seeds. The fruit is high in</p><p>vitamin C.</p><p>Cattails are known as the “supermarket of the swamp.” No</p><p>matter the season, there are always edible parts available on</p><p>the cattail plant. The roots, shoots, and pollen heads can all be</p><p>eaten.</p><p>The inner bark of conifer trees, known as the cambium layer,</p><p>is full of sugars, starches, and calories. It can be eaten on</p><p>most evergreen, conebearing trees except for yews, which are</p><p>all poisonous and are identified by red berries). The inner</p><p>bark should be scraped out and cooked to convert the fibers</p><p>into a more digestible form.</p><p>All grasses are edible. The leaves can be chewed and the</p><p>juices swallowed—though be sure to spit out any indigestible</p><p>fibers.</p><p>All acorns—the nuts produced by oak trees—can be leached</p><p>of their bitter tannic acids and eaten, providing an excellent</p><p>source of protein, fats, and calories. To rid the acorns of</p><p>tannins, place them in a net bag in a stream for a day, or put</p><p>them into several changes of boiling water. White oaks have</p><p>the least amount of tannins and therefore the best flavor.</p><p>432</p><p>Again, be sure to properly identify any plant you plan on</p><p>consuming. Many plants can be difficult to identify and some</p><p>edible plants have deadly poisonous look-alikes. If you</p><p>cannot identify the plant, DO NOT eat it.</p><p>433</p><p>434</p><p>Amaranth</p><p>Chicory</p><p>435</p><p>Acorns</p><p>436</p><p>Dandelions</p><p>437</p><p>Poplar trees</p><p>Edibility Test</p><p>The best way to determine what is and is not safe to eat in the</p><p>wild is to develop a sound knowledge of the plant families</p><p>that grow in the region you’re traveling in.</p><p>Some parts of a plant may be safe to eat and other parts of the</p><p>same plant may be poisonous. Be sure to treat different plant</p><p>parts as separate entities. For example, common fruits such as</p><p>apple, tomato, and mango are edible, while parts of the plants</p><p>they grow on are toxic.</p><p>438</p><p>Plants growing in water may have Giardia on them. If you</p><p>have a very sensitive digestion, you should avoid using wild</p><p>plants as food.</p><p>Be especially cautious of any plant that has a bean pod or</p><p>looks like a tomato, potato, or morning glory. And avoid any</p><p>plant or plant part that smells like almonds or root beer, or</p><p>which may have developed mold.</p><p>If you’re stuck in the wild, are not familiar with the plants in</p><p>the environment, and have no other available sources of food,</p><p>follow this procedure for testing plant sources before you</p><p>consume them.</p><p>1. Test only one part of a potential food plant at a time.</p><p>Separate the plant into its basic components—leaves, stems,</p><p>roots, buds, and flowers.</p><p>2. Smell the plant part for strong or acidic odors. Remember</p><p>that smell alone does not indicate whether a plant is edible or</p><p>inedible.</p><p>3. Do not eat for eight hours before starting the test.</p><p>4. During the eight hours you abstain from eating, test for</p><p>contact poisoning by placing a piece of the plant part you are</p><p>testing on the inside of your elbow or wrist. If your body does</p><p>have a reaction, it will usually occur within fifteen minutes.</p><p>5. During the test period, take nothing by mouth except</p><p>purified water and the plant part you are testing.</p><p>439</p><p>440</p><p>Fir trees</p><p>Willow tree</p><p>441</p><p>442</p><p>Birch tree bark</p><p>6. Select a small portion of a single part and prepare it the</p><p>way you plan to eat it.</p><p>7. Before placing the prepared plant part in your mouth, touch</p><p>a small portion to the outer surface of your lip to test for</p><p>burning or itching.</p><p>8. If there’s no reaction on your lip after three minutes, place</p><p>the plant part on your tongue, holding it there for fifteen</p><p>minutes.</p><p>9. If there is no reaction after fifteen minutes, thoroughly</p><p>chew a pinch and hold it in your mouth for fifteen minutes.</p><p>Do not swallow.</p><p>10. If no burning, itching, numbing, stinging, or other</p><p>irritation occurs during the fifteen minutes it’s in your mouth,</p><p>swallow the food.</p><p>11. Wait for eight hours. If any ill effects occur during this</p><p>period, induce vomiting and drink a lot of water.</p><p>12. If no ill effects occur, eat a quarter of a cup of the same</p><p>plant part prepared the same way. Wait another eight hours. If</p><p>no ill effects occur, you can consider the plant part as</p><p>prepared safe to eat.</p><p>Make sure you have other options.</p><p>Flood, fire, and droughts could all pose a serious risk to plant</p><p>life. You need to have a backup plan for those times when</p><p>443</p><p>eating</p><p>plants may become impossible. Make sure you have a</p><p>good emergency food supply and a way to fish, hunt, and trap</p><p>game.</p><p>Animal Foods</p><p>Meat contains more protein than plant food and might even be</p><p>more readily available in some places. But to acquire meat,</p><p>you need to know the habits of, and how to capture, the</p><p>various wildlife.</p><p>444</p><p>Aleutian cackling goose</p><p>A male and female pair of Northern bobwhite quail</p><p>445</p><p>Seagull</p><p>446</p><p>Turkey toms</p><p>Birds</p><p>All birds are edible. Game birds such as grouse and pheasants</p><p>can be captured using snares or hunting implements such as a</p><p>throwing stick, though it can be difficult if you’re not familiar</p><p>with the proper techniques.</p><p>Bird Eggs</p><p>447</p><p>In the spring, bird eggs are an excellent source of survival</p><p>food. Not only are they high in nutritional value, they’re also</p><p>convenient and safe. Eggs can be boiled, baked, fried, or, if</p><p>need be, raw. The obvious place to look for them is in a bird</p><p>nest. However, not all birds build a nest. Some lay their eggs</p><p>directly on the ground or in a hole.</p><p>Small Mammals</p><p>Small mammals including squirrels, rabbits and mice can be</p><p>captured with practice. Traps and snares are often most</p><p>effective, though a throwing stick can be used too.</p><p>Jackrabbit</p><p>448</p><p>Mouse</p><p>449</p><p>Bats</p><p>450</p><p>451</p><p>Prairie dogs</p><p>Rabbit</p><p>452</p><p>453</p><p>Squirrel</p><p>Raccoon</p><p>Hunting and Gathering</p><p>454</p><p>Hunting for food in the wilderness is an important and often</p><p>misunderstood skill that was second nature to our ancestors,</p><p>but has been largely lost by modern man as he’s evolved. The</p><p>good news is that all of us are born with the senses and</p><p>abilities to be good hunters.</p><p>Trapping and wild game procurement are not skills that can</p><p>be acquired in the comforts of your backyard. They come</p><p>with trial and error and plenty of practice out in the</p><p>wilderness.</p><p>Those who take the time to learn and practice hunting and</p><p>gathering skills will come to realize that wilderness</p><p>landscapes that once seemed inhospitable are in reality</p><p>generous lands that will sustain those who know where and,</p><p>most important, how to look.</p><p>If you want to be able to feed yourself reasonably well in the</p><p>backcountry, focus on developing the following basic skills:</p><p>1. Proficiency with a firearm</p><p>2. Fishing methods such as angling and using cast nets and</p><p>trotlines</p><p>3. Knowledge of common edible plants in your region of</p><p>travel</p><p>4. How to use traps and snares</p><p>Living Off the Land</p><p>455</p><p>The initial emphasis for a survivor should be on small game</p><p>and not big game animals such as elk, moose, and deer. On</p><p>any given day in the wild, you are going to come across a</p><p>greater concentration of rabbits, squirrels, woodchucks,</p><p>marmots, raccoons, and other smaller critters than you will</p><p>big game. For the survivor, these animals will provide</p><p>sustenance until you can procure larger game.</p><p>Fish with worm</p><p>456</p><p>Carp in net</p><p>457</p><p>Gaur</p><p>458</p><p>Macaque</p><p>459</p><p>Red muntjac deer</p><p>460</p><p>Sambar</p><p>Trapping</p><p>Trapping is time-intensive in the beginning, but the payoff is</p><p>well worth it if you know what you’re doing. Once learned, it</p><p>is one of the most efficient means of feeding yourself in the</p><p>wild.</p><p>Trapping is a numbers game. The more traps you set, the</p><p>better off you will be.</p><p>461</p><p>Set out as many traps as you are physically capable of.</p><p>There’s no such thing, under survival conditions, as</p><p>overdoing it. If you set up a primitive trap line for survival</p><p>purposes, make sure it contains anywhere from ten to twenty</p><p>or more traps (snares, deadfalls, and so on.).</p><p>Deadfalls and Snares</p><p>Snaring and deadfall traps are both excellent means of</p><p>procuring meat— whether small game or large animals such</p><p>as deer. Deadfalls work by crushing your intended prey while</p><p>they attempt to eat the bait that you have placed on the trap</p><p>mechanism. They are very effective for squirrels, chipmunks,</p><p>and pack rats. In ancient Europe, hunters even used large</p><p>deadfalls to bring down wolves and bears!</p><p>There are four things to consider when setting a deadfall trap:</p><p>1. Carving a precision trap and then finding the proper rock or</p><p>log.</p><p>2. Knowledge of both the behavior and tracks of your</p><p>intended prey.</p><p>3. Setting the trap in the correct area for your intended prey.</p><p>4. Using a bait or lure that will appeal to as many of the</p><p>animal’s senses as possible.</p><p>Primitive deadfalls for small game require willow, tamarisk,</p><p>or other straight stalks. You can even use juniper logs that are</p><p>split out into straight timber. The best way to carve deadfalls</p><p>is to cut three dozen willow shoots and then spend the</p><p>462</p><p>evening whittling twenty or more traps. Don’t worry about</p><p>placement or rigging these up in the field. Just sit and practice</p><p>carving so you ingrain the moves in your head and hands.</p><p>Widget deadfall. This is a variation on the fgure-4.</p><p>The next step is to practice setting up your traps under</p><p>nonsurvival conditions. You want to create a stable trap with</p><p>a figure-4 trigger that will cause the trap to collapse, even to</p><p>the slightest touch. As a weight, use a heavy log or rock,</p><p>which should be two to three times the body weight of the</p><p>animal you intend to trap.</p><p>How to Make a Figure-4 Trigger:</p><p>1. Rest a rock, log, or other weight on the end of a diagonal</p><p>stick. The weight will supply downward pressure to the end</p><p>of the stick.</p><p>2. The diagonal stick should rest and pivot on the vertical</p><p>stick. This will keep the diagonal stick from slipping to the</p><p>left.</p><p>463</p><p>3. The diagonal stick is also held in place by having the end</p><p>rest in a notch.</p><p>4. The pressure of the diagonal stick will pull the horizontal</p><p>stick toward the left.</p><p>5. The horizontal stick is held in place by the notches, which</p><p>is where the actual trigger mechanism is located.</p><p>6. Please your bait at the end of the horizontal stick so it is</p><p>directly under the weight.</p><p>When the animal takes the bait at the end of the horizontal</p><p>stick, the trigger will release. This will cause the horizontal</p><p>stick to fall to the ground, and the diagonal stick to flip up and</p><p>out in a counterclockwise arc so that the weight will come</p><p>crashing down on the animal, killing it instantly.</p><p>Make sure the vertical stick rests on a hard surface, such as a</p><p>flat stone. Otherwise it may dig into the ground and won’t fall</p><p>out of the way when the trap is triggered. I also recommend</p><p>putting something hard on the ground under the whole trap or</p><p>placing the trap on rock. Otherwise, the deadfall, when it</p><p>falls, may only injure the animal by pressing it into the soft</p><p>ground.</p><p>Paiute Deadfall</p><p>The Paiute deadfall is the fastest deadfall you will find, and</p><p>used throughout the American Southwest and Africa for</p><p>catching or killing small game. If you use this type of trap</p><p>with a box or crate instead of a deadfall, you can trap animals</p><p>rather than kill them.</p><p>464</p><p>Unlike the figure-4 trigger, the Paiute deadfall uses cordage.</p><p>Materials required:</p><p>• A small length of cord.</p><p>• Two sticks equal in diameter, one roughly eight inches</p><p>long, the other roughly 6 ½ inches long.</p><p>• A long skinny trigger stick (you can trim it to fit).</p><p>• A three-inch toggle stick (which should be a little thicker</p><p>than your trigger stick).</p><p>• A deadfall (rock or heavy log) or a box or crate.</p><p>1. Attach the cord to one end of the 6 ½-inch-long support</p><p>stick, and the other end of the cord to the middle of the</p><p>three-inch toggle stick.</p><p>2. Find a place to set up your deadfall trap, one where you</p><p>think your prey is likely to be found. Make sure the trap is set</p><p>up on hard ground. Push your eight-inch-long upright stick</p><p>about two inches into the ground and lean it slightly in the</p><p>direction of the deadfall.</p><p>3. Set your trap with bait. Since you want your prey to pull</p><p>down on the trigger stick, either rub your bait into the trigger</p><p>stick or attach it to a piece of string that is tied to the trigger</p><p>stick. Take your support stick and place the end without the</p><p>cord on top of the upright stick. Then place the edge of your</p><p>deadfall on the other end of the support stick. Hold the cord</p><p>465</p><p>tight so that the support stick doesn’t let the deadfall down.</p><p>Then bring the cord around the upright</p><p>and hold it there.</p><p>4. Placing the trigger stick can be frustrating. Be patient.</p><p>Place one end of the trigger stick against the toggle so that the</p><p>toggle cannot unwrap from around the upright. Now take the</p><p>other end of the trigger stick and fit it into the underside of</p><p>the deadfall. If you need to, trim the trigger stick so that it fits</p><p>perfectly between the toggle and deadfall. Now you’re ready</p><p>to catch game.</p><p>Survival Snares</p><p>Snares are the simplest means of procuring small animals like</p><p>rabbits and squirrels, and can also be used to catch larger</p><p>game. A snare consists of a loop (noose) of cord or wire</p><p>placed across an animal trail, a trigger mechanism, and a</p><p>spring stick of some sort that will quickly jerk the animal up</p><p>into the air when triggered.</p><p>There are two basic types of snares. The first (holding snare)</p><p>holds the animal at ground level and may or may not strangle</p><p>the victim. The second (flip snare) design will flip the animal</p><p>into the air and cause it to be strangled. While both are easy to</p><p>make, each design has strengths and weaknesses.</p><p>466</p><p>A flip-up snare that yanks the critter of the ground and</p><p>enables a quick, humane kill.</p><p>Both designs require a loop made of wire, cord, string, or vine</p><p>to tighten and hold the animal. The loop should have some</p><p>freedom of movement to allow it to tighten as the animal</p><p>struggles or moves forward into the snare.</p><p>With both types of snares, make sure to set the loop diameter</p><p>for the type of animal you hope to catch.</p><p>• For rabbit, the loop should be about four inches in</p><p>diameter and placed about two inches above the trail.</p><p>• For squirrels, the loop should be about three inches in</p><p>diameter and two to three inches above the trail.</p><p>467</p><p>• For beavers, make the loop about five inches in diameter</p><p>and place it about one to two inches off the ground.</p><p>When making a holding snare, you have to secure the end of</p><p>the snare wire (the end opposite the loop) to a bush, stake, or</p><p>other stationary object. Make sure the snare is secure, and try</p><p>to use brush, logs or other debris to funnel the animal toward</p><p>your snare. The animal’s head will enter the loop and, as it</p><p>continues to move forward, the loop will slide and tighten</p><p>until the animal can’t escape.</p><p>With a flip-up snare, you also want to funnel animals toward</p><p>your trap. The difference in this case it that when the animal’s</p><p>head enters the snare, it will eventually pull the wire far</p><p>enough to trigger the flip-up part of the trap. At that point the</p><p>animal will be flipped into the air and strangled. The diameter</p><p>of the loop and the distances off the ground remain the same</p><p>in this snare as in the other.</p><p>To make a trip snare, you need a flexible limb or bush, snare</p><p>wire, a trigger, and a method to hold the trigger. I recommend</p><p>a supple sapling. When bent over and secured with a</p><p>triggering device, it will provide power to your snare. Select a</p><p>hardwood sapling along the trail, and remove all branches and</p><p>foliage if you can (as this will allow it spring faster). Use two</p><p>forked sticks, each with a long and short leg. Bend the sapling</p><p>or branch and mark the place where it meets the trail. Drive</p><p>the long leg of one forked stick firmly into the ground at that</p><p>point. Make sure the cut on the short leg of this stick is</p><p>parallel to the ground. Tie the long leg of the remaining</p><p>forked stick to a piece of cord secured to the sapling or</p><p>branch. Cut the short leg so that it catches on the short leg of</p><p>the other forked stick. Extend a noose over the trail. Set the</p><p>468</p><p>trap by bending the sapling or branch and engaging the short</p><p>legs of the forked sticks. When an animal catches its head in</p><p>the noose, it pulls the forked sticks apart, allowing the</p><p>twitch-up to spring up and hang the prey.</p><p>Baiting Your Traps</p><p>If you are out in the wilderness without bait, then use</p><p>something exotic and uncommon to the area. If you are trying</p><p>to trap a rabbit, don’t use the raspberries off the bush near its</p><p>burrow. Choose some succulent cattail roots from a nearby</p><p>swamp. This will spark much greater interest than the greens</p><p>it is surrounded by on a daily basis. Look inside your</p><p>pack—any bagels or apples? The key here is to use something</p><p>“exotic” from outside the animal’s home region.</p><p>Prehistoric Trap Systems of Northern Arizona —by Tony</p><p>Nester</p><p>The ability to procure food in a demanding landscape like the</p><p>desert was possible for those who knew where and how to</p><p>look and had a wealth of hunting and trapping skills. I believe</p><p>trapping played a significant role in the menu of</p><p>hunter-gatherers in the desert, though archeological site</p><p>reports tend to focus on larger fauna and hunting implements</p><p>such as the atlatl and bow.</p><p>Despite ranking low in the overall archeological interpretation</p><p>of the Southwest, deadfalls and snares have been found in</p><p>quantity at Basketmaker sites in Arizona and Utah and were</p><p>used (and still are in some regions) at places like Hopi and</p><p>Supai.</p><p>469</p><p>As experienced primitive trappers know, the use of deadfalls</p><p>and snares is a very calorie-efficient method for obtaining</p><p>wild game from the landscape.</p><p>Bird Snares</p><p>“We little boys made snares of horse-hair to catch birds. I</p><p>learned to catch bluebirds with a hair from a horse’s tail set as</p><p>a snare on the upper stem of a sunflower stalk, with a worm</p><p>for bait,” said Hopi elder Don C. Talayesva in his biography</p><p>Sun Chief.</p><p>I made a trap using a branch of willow with several (human</p><p>and horse hair) snares attached. This trap was placed on the</p><p>ground where invasive Eurasian doves land frequently to feast</p><p>upon wild sunflower seeds.</p><p>Upon initial testing, I set the trap down in the evening and</p><p>secured it with a line of yucca attached to a grapefruit-sized</p><p>rock to prevent any airborne theft of the trap by a particularly</p><p>pugnacious dove. At sunrise, my dogs informed me that there</p><p>was a visitor in the trap. A groggy stumble outside revealed a</p><p>large pigeon with one foot in the snare and the other foot</p><p>attempting a wave to his freedom-loving pals above. The trap</p><p>had worked and the pigeon was released unharmed by</p><p>snipping the cordage near his foot.</p><p>Given the snare’s low-tech nature and ease of construction,</p><p>setting a few of these in heavily trafficked areas that birds</p><p>frequent would provide a hunter with an easy meal with a</p><p>minimum of energy expenditure. If one doesn’t have access to</p><p>birdseed (wild or otherwise) for bait, then placing the snares</p><p>470</p><p>alongside water holes, where bird tracks have been found,</p><p>would be the next best setup.</p><p>Another invention that doesn’t show up in the ethnographic</p><p>literature on the Hopi very often is an upright bird snare</p><p>perched on a sunflower stalk. The setup is a miniature version</p><p>of an Ojibwa bird snare from Canada and is used mainly for</p><p>catching small birds such as bluebirds and sparrows, for their</p><p>feathers and not their meat.</p><p>In DuPont Cave in Utah, a cache of 137 bird snares was</p><p>found, while fifty-five bird snares were uncovered in a cave</p><p>in Adugegi Canyon in Arizona; both were Basketmaker sites.</p><p>In my research I found that “snares consist of a stick</p><p>measuring 50 to 60 cm. long by 0.5 to 0.75 cm. in diameter to</p><p>which lengths of human hair or vegetable cordage have been</p><p>secured at the distal end of each length of cordage is a small</p><p>slip noose. Variation is restricted to the number of cords</p><p>(from one to six) attached to the snare sticks.” In my own</p><p>fieldwork, bird snares that I have had success with each had</p><p>five to eight cords attached.</p><p>In the western Grand Canyon, on Hualapai tribal land, there</p><p>was an even simpler design in which “wild pigeons were</p><p>caught in a snare, onu’k. This was a running noose of yucca</p><p>twine. It was tied to a bush and would tighten up on the bird’s</p><p>leg” (from Walapai Ethnography by A.L. Kroeber).</p><p>Paiute Deadfall</p><p>471</p><p>“The Walapai have a deadfall trap, kweo’ne, in which they</p><p>catch rabbits, rats, mice, and even snakes and lizards.” The</p><p>Paiute deadfall was used by the Supai in the Grand Canyon.</p><p>Traps are placed on the rodent trails in the fields to catch the</p><p>squirrels and rats. Snakes and birds are sometimes found in</p><p>these</p><p>devices, but no attempt is made to trap or snare large</p><p>game. It is baited with dried peaches or mescal pulp tied</p><p>firmly to the trigger.</p><p>“The old people showed us how to make deadfalls to catch</p><p>kangaroo rats, prairie dogs, porcupines, badgers, chipmunks,</p><p>squirrels, and turtledoves. The men used heavy rock deadfalls</p><p>for trapping coyotes, foxes, wildcats, and other large animals”</p><p>(Hopi elder Don C. Talayesva in his biography Sun Chief).</p><p>472</p><p>473</p><p>Lizard</p><p>Promontory Peg Deadfall</p><p>In Danger Cave, located two miles east of Wendover, Utah,</p><p>archeologists uncovered more than sixty Promontory Peg</p><p>components made from willow, milkwort, rabbitbrush, and</p><p>other materials. One specimen even had a slice of prickly pear</p><p>still impaled on the bait stick!</p><p>The Danger Cave specimens exhibited signs of spiral cuts on</p><p>the platforms which might, as one researcher noted, have</p><p>been to increase surface friction or create “threads” to allow</p><p>for a better union between the two pieces.</p><p>On a twelve-day desert survival course I taught for the</p><p>military, students made two Paiutes and two Promontory Peg</p><p>deadfalls each. These were baited and placed among the</p><p>rocky ledges in a canyon not far from our camp. The trap</p><p>design that was initially successful, and which scored pack</p><p>rats, was the Promontory Peg. After refinement (and more</p><p>in-field application) during the following week, students</p><p>experienced a more balanced success rate between the two</p><p>trap systems. This was largely due, I believe, to continual</p><p>practice with the delicate Paiute trigger system as well as</p><p>more field experience with reading animal signs, which</p><p>ensured better trap placement.</p><p>The Great Pack Rat Roundup</p><p>Every fall, during our annual five-week program in traditional</p><p>skills, we spend a great deal of time on the area of food</p><p>procurement, particularly teaching a variety of primitive</p><p>474</p><p>traps. This season, we had the opportunity to test out a</p><p>large-scale primitive trapline (in this case aimed at rodents).</p><p>The region consists of forty acres of high-desert,</p><p>pinyon-juniper at an elevation of 6,000 feet.</p><p>Three hogans and numerous wickiups on site had been</p><p>infested with pack rats and we decided to have students set</p><p>individual traps consisting of two Paiutes and two</p><p>Promontory Peg deadfalls per person. Traps were baited with</p><p>local flora such as currants, prickly pear fruit, and wild</p><p>sunflowers. All traps were fenced in with twigs of juniper,</p><p>save a small entrance. We agreed that, assuming the animals</p><p>caught were healthy, we would utilize the meat in our stews</p><p>and jerk any surplus. An adult pack rat doesn’t weigh a lot, so</p><p>there wasn’t exactly enough for a juicy rat-burger.</p><p>There were six participants and we spread our traps over an</p><p>area of approximately twenty acres. Care was made not to</p><p>disturb any nests or droppings and everyone got a lecture on</p><p>the dangers of zoonotic diseases such as hantavirus from deer</p><p>mice droppings and bubonic plague from flea bites.</p><p>We determined that there were roughly six pack rats per acre,</p><p>or approximately 120 rats over twenty acres. Add in the other</p><p>small critters, such as rock squirrels, prairie dogs, cottontails,</p><p>and jackrabbits, and a prehistoric trapper would be able to fill</p><p>his stew pot using traps.</p><p>Traps were set in the afternoon and checked once before</p><p>everyone went to sleep and once upon rising in the morning.</p><p>The students had been practicing their trap skills for the past</p><p>week, since the program began, and were already familiar</p><p>with how to fine-tune their deadfall triggers.</p><p>475</p><p>Here are the results based on twenty-four deadfalls (two of</p><p>each type) set out during a twelve-hour period (overnight):</p><p>Traps Set: 24</p><p>Traps Sprung (but without game): 7</p><p>Traps Sprung (with game): 4</p><p>Traps Unsprung: 13</p><p>Of the traps that were unsprung, some had bait that was</p><p>missing while others were untouched. The traps that were</p><p>sprung but without game (no kill) had the bait missing;</p><p>several bait sticks were completely missing from the scene.</p><p>The traps that were sprung with game all had flattened rats.</p><p>Two of the latter traps were set inside the hogans that had the</p><p>most rodent traffic. The remaining two traps that had game</p><p>were set outside: one near the entrance of a large hogan and</p><p>the other adjacent to a rock pile near an old wickiup.</p><p>Regarding which traps were more successful in this very brief</p><p>experiment, the Paiute deadfall accounted for three rats and</p><p>the Promontory Peg accounted for one rat. The bait that was</p><p>favored was fresh prickly pear fruit that had been gathered</p><p>previously from outside the area.</p><p>After students collected rats from their traps, they</p><p>immediately tossed each rat on the coals of the fire to burn off</p><p>the fleas. We then divided up the rats and had one of these</p><p>skinned and boiled up in a stew pot while the other two were</p><p>tossed back on the coals to bake the meat in its skin,</p><p>Hopi-style. After removing the latter group of rats, the</p><p>crunchy, blackened carcasses were gutted to remove the</p><p>476</p><p>innards and the meat consumed by picking past the skin. One</p><p>rat was dried, skeleton and all, to show how to make jerky</p><p>from small critters.</p><p>Again, be warned that pack rats and other rodents carry fleas</p><p>and should be treated by immediately singing off the hair in</p><p>the fire or by immersing the carcass underwater in a stream</p><p>for thirty minutes.</p><p>Skinning and Gutting Your Kill</p><p>A “gut hook” or “belly zipper” is the curved hook that’s</p><p>located on the back of many hunting knives. Use this to hook</p><p>under the skin and “unzip” the pelt without snagging on</p><p>internal organs. If you don’t have one on your knife, be very</p><p>careful when opening any animal so as to not cut into the</p><p>intestines or stomach and contaminate the meat.</p><p>You should have a basic understanding of the general location</p><p>of a mammal’s internal organs. Since all internal organs are</p><p>connected at the throat and anus, by cutting at those two</p><p>points you should be able to remove all of them in one big</p><p>mass.</p><p>477</p><p>Mammal anatomy diagram</p><p>478</p><p>479</p><p>Skinning a rodent</p><p>• Esophagus—Connects the mouth and the stomach.</p><p>Because it contains a lot of cartilage and gristle, it’s not really</p><p>worth eating.</p><p>• Stomach—Contains harsh acids along with partly</p><p>digested food. Unless properly prepared, don’t eat it.</p><p>• Lungs—They’re edible, but most people find them hard</p><p>to eat.</p><p>• Heart—Solid muscle and good to eat if tenderized or</p><p>boiled first.</p><p>• Kidneys—Good to eat.</p><p>• Small intestine—Contains a lot of harsh acids and partly</p><p>digested food. Don’t eat it unless properly cleaned, prepared,</p><p>and cooked.</p><p>• Liver—Packed with vitamins and minerals and good to</p><p>eat unless there are any discolorations or spots on it. If you</p><p>find spots or discolorations, discard.</p><p>• Large intestine—Don’t eat it.</p><p>Possible methods for catching a nonvenomous snake:</p><p>• Distract the snake with a stick. Grasp its tail and lift the</p><p>snake upwards, leaving the front part of its body on the</p><p>ground.</p><p>480</p><p>• Lay a large container on its side. Sweep snake in with a</p><p>branch or a stick.</p><p>• Use a large bushy stick. Allow the snake to “hide” in your</p><p>makeshift “bush.” Tease the snake with another stick or by</p><p>wiggling the bushy stick. The snake will often curl around the</p><p>branches and twigs. Move your stick to where you want the</p><p>snake to go and leave it there. The snake will leave when it</p><p>feels safe.</p><p>• Look for an area that has shade and bugs. When you see</p><p>the snake, slowly and very, very carefully, pick it up by the</p><p>head. Bring it over to the bag or container.</p><p>• Grab the snake by the tail if possible, keeping the rest of</p><p>your body as far away as you can. Pin the snake down by</p><p>placing the stick directly behind its head and applying</p><p>pressure to keep it from moving its head. Drop the tail and</p><p>grab the pinned snake by the neck as close to the head as</p><p>possible. Use your other hand to support the snake’s body and</p><p>keep it from thrashing about. A large snake can easily free</p><p>itself from your grip if you let it thrash.</p><p>Prepare a Snake for Eating</p><p>Snakes can be quite tasty and are a staple of protein, much</p><p>like duck, pheasants, turkeys, and rabbits.</p><p>Instructions:</p><p>481</p><p>Black snake</p><p>1. Remove the snake’s head and neck up to three inches,</p><p>clean with knife;</p><p>2. Slit the snake lengthwise up the middle and remove the</p><p>insides.</p><p>3. Rinse and clean the inner part of the snake.</p><p>482</p><p>4. Remove the skin. Start where the neck was and slowly peel</p><p>back.</p><p>5. Remove the tenderloins of the reptile. You do this by</p><p>laying the snake belly down (like you would fillet a fish) and</p><p>cutting the meat away from the back and ribs.</p><p>6. Place the meat in a bowl of fresh water with about one</p><p>tablespoon of salt. Let this sit until you are ready to grill or</p><p>fry.</p><p>Survival Fishing</p><p>Fish are a valuable food source, and all freshwater fish in</p><p>North America are edible. In a survival situation, there a</p><p>several ways to catch fish, including using a sharpened stick</p><p>as a fish spear, or making a fish net for small minnows out of</p><p>a T-shirt.</p><p>Angling</p><p>Angling is the method of catching fish that people are familiar</p><p>with. You’ll need a hook, line, rod, and a small weight to take</p><p>the hook down. You’ll also need a float to keep the bait off</p><p>the lake or pond bottom. You can use any small floating</p><p>object as a bobber, including a small piece of bark. You don’t</p><p>need a float in streams and flowing water.</p><p>483</p><p>Carp</p><p>484</p><p>Large dip net made from a hefty oak branch and the</p><p>inner strands of 550 cord.</p><p>485</p><p>High-altitude cooking</p><p>You should have a line and hook as part of your survival kit.</p><p>Hooks can also be improvised from other kinds of materials</p><p>such as safety pins, thorns, bones, and wood. In order to be</p><p>successful at fishing, you need to know something about the</p><p>behavior of the fish you’re after. In general, the best time to</p><p>486</p><p>catch fish is just before dawn, just after dusk, or when bad</p><p>weather is imminent.</p><p>Like most all other living creatures, fish choose those places</p><p>where they are most comfortable and where they can most</p><p>easily find their prey. If it’s hot and the water is low, deep</p><p>shaded water is probably where you should look. In cooler</p><p>weather, you probably will find your catch in a shallow place</p><p>where the sun warms the water. Fish like to shelter under</p><p>banks and below rocks or deadfalls.</p><p>Fish are more likely to take bait native to their water, so try to</p><p>figure out what they eat. For example, insects and worms can</p><p>be used as bait in practically any water. If one type of bait</p><p>isn’t successful, change to another.</p><p>Survival Fishing with a Spear</p><p>Spear fishing takes time, patience, and practice. For best</p><p>results, use a forked spear and look for shallow water where</p><p>your catch is visible. Slowly move the spear as close as</p><p>possible to your catch, and spear it quickly.</p><p>Fishing Nets</p><p>In a survival situation, an improvised net can prove extremely</p><p>effective. For instance, use an undershirt and a y-shaped</p><p>branch to make a landing net. T-shirts and other pieces of</p><p>fabric can also be used as nets to catch small fish.</p><p>Survival Cooking</p><p>487</p><p>Cooking is an important skill for those who spend time in the</p><p>wilderness. Cooking not only makes many foods more</p><p>appetizing to taste, but also ensures that parasites and bacteria</p><p>are killed. The last thing you want is to get sick from food</p><p>poisoning.</p><p>While it’s certainly convenient to carry a compact camping</p><p>stove in the wilderness, in many situations a cooking fire is</p><p>more practical and allows a wider variety of cooking</p><p>opportunities.</p><p>Hot Stone Cooking</p><p>This cooking method is ideal for fish, thin slices of meat, and</p><p>eggs. Simply light a fire above a bed of nonporous stones.</p><p>Don’t use soft, porous stones with high moisture content</p><p>because they might explode on heating.</p><p>Let the fire burn for an hour or more, then brush away fire</p><p>and embers with a stick or a handful of long grass. Cook your</p><p>food directly on the rocks, the way you would using a frying</p><p>pan.</p><p>Hot Stone Pit</p><p>This alternative acts as a primitive oven.</p><p>Dig a pit about two feet deep and two feet in diameter. Pack</p><p>the pit bottom and walls and cover the bottom with hot</p><p>fist-sized stones. Then add a thin layer of soil. Wrap your</p><p>meat in fresh green plant leaves or moss. Add another thin</p><p>layer of soil and more hot stones. Cover with earth or sand.</p><p>488</p><p>Fish fillets skewered with green willow sticks bake near</p><p>the coals.</p><p>A Modern Hunter-Gatherer’s Outdoor Calendar from</p><p>Northern Arizona—by Tony Nester</p><p>In Arizona there are many life zones and a range of</p><p>environments, from low desert at 1,200 feet to alpine at</p><p>10,000 feet. With such a range of elevations and life zones,</p><p>there are unique opportunities to forage and hunt.</p><p>Each region of the country presents its own challenges and</p><p>optimal times for harvesting, so you will have to look into</p><p>what is available where you live and travel and create your</p><p>own calendar. Below is an example of my personal calendar</p><p>for hunting and foraging in northern and central Arizona by</p><p>season.</p><p>Spring</p><p>Collect young cattail and bulrush shoots from riverbanks and</p><p>riparian areas</p><p>Gather young amaranth, dandelion, curly dock, and goosefoot</p><p>leaves for salads</p><p>489</p><p>Collect wild onions before flowering</p><p>Fish for trout and panfish</p><p>Hunt rabbits and raccoons</p><p>Summer</p><p>Gather currant berries and raspberries</p><p>Collect cattail pollen for making bread</p><p>Harvest purslane for salads</p><p>Collect medicinal plant leaves for drying</p><p>Collect crayfish</p><p>Fish for catfish and panfish</p><p>Hunt rabbits</p><p>Gather puffball mushrooms</p><p>Pick banana yucca fruits</p><p>Fall</p><p>Gather large quantities of gambel oak acorns and piñon pine</p><p>nuts</p><p>490</p><p>Bow hunt deer and any other large game in the area</p><p>Hunt squirrels, rabbits, and raccoons</p><p>Collect medicinal plant roots for drying</p><p>Gather mesquite pods for grinding into flour</p><p>Harvest apples from local orchards</p><p>Winter</p><p>Hunt rabbits</p><p>Bow hunt deer (during late archery season)</p><p>Harvest willow for teaching trap-making and making fish</p><p>baskets</p><p>Process dried acorns (from the fall) into flour</p><p>Refine skills, do research on mammals/trapping/plants, and</p><p>wait for spring</p><p>As you can see, summer and fall offer a bounty of resources,</p><p>especially in terms of nuts, acorns, and plant resources</p><p>compared with winter and spring. I would encourage you to</p><p>formulate your own region-specific calendar.</p><p>491</p><p>As your skills progress and you become more proficient at</p><p>hunting and gathering, you will realize that what seems, at</p><p>first glance, to be an inhospitable landscape is in reality a</p><p>generous land that will sustain those who know where and,</p><p>most important, how to look.</p><p>492</p><p>FOOD AND HUNTING</p><p>493</p><p>11</p><p>“Everybody talks about the weather, but no one does anything</p><p>about it.”</p><p>—Charles Dudley Warner</p><p>Whether we realize it or not, most of us subconsciously</p><p>“forecast” the weather. Say you look outside and see dark</p><p>clouds approaching. Chances are you’ll grab your rain gear as</p><p>you walk out the door. If you’re out on a trail run and are</p><p>suddenly hit by a gust of wind, you’re likely to glance up at</p><p>the sky to look for other signs of ominous weather.</p><p>There are better ways to forecast the weather than relying on</p><p>“subconscious forecasting” alone. In the mountains, desert,</p><p>jungle, or at sea, an understanding of weather patterns is</p><p>critical. The ability to accurately forecast and plan for</p><p>changes in the weather could save your life.</p><p>Mountain Weather</p><p>Mountain weather can be extremely erratic and harder to read</p><p>than in other areas. Conditions vary with altitude, latitude,</p><p>and exposure to atmospheric winds and air masses.</p><p>The weather there can vary from stormy winds to calm, and</p><p>from extreme cold to heat within a short time or with just a</p><p>minor shift in locality. The severity and variance of the</p><p>494</p><p>weather can have a major impact on your survival in the</p><p>mountains.</p><p>Considerations for Planning</p><p>Mountain weather can work in your favor or become a</p><p>dangerous obstacle to survival, depending on how well you</p><p>understand it and to what extent you take advantage of its</p><p>unique characteristics.</p><p>The clouds that often cover the tops of mountains and the</p><p>fogs that cover valleys are excellent means of concealing</p><p>movements that normally are made during darkness or in</p><p>smoke. Tactically, limited visibility</p><p>can be used to your</p><p>advantage. Darkness can be your friend.</p><p>The safety or danger of almost all high mountain regions,</p><p>especially in winter, depends upon a change of just a few</p><p>degrees of temperature above or below the freezing point.</p><p>Ease and speed of travel depend mainly on the weather.</p><p>Terrain that can be crossed swiftly and safely one day may</p><p>become impassable or highly dangerous the next due to</p><p>snowfall, rainfall, or a rise in temperature. The reverse can</p><p>happen just as quickly. The prevalence of avalanches depends</p><p>on terrain, snow conditions, and weather factors.</p><p>Some mountains, such as those found in desert regions, are</p><p>dry and barren with temperatures ranging from extreme heat</p><p>in summer to extreme cold in winter. In tropical regions, lush</p><p>jungles with heavy seasonal rains and little temperature</p><p>variation often cover mountains. High rocky crags with</p><p>glaciated peaks can be found in mountain ranges at most</p><p>latitudes along the western portion of the Americas and Asia.</p><p>495</p><p>Severe weather can dramatically lower morale and intensify</p><p>basic survival issues. Problems can be minimized if you’ve</p><p>been trained to accept the weather and are properly equipped.</p><p>Mountain Air</p><p>High mountain air is typically dry, especially in winter, when</p><p>cold air has a reduced capacity to hold water vapor. Because</p><p>of this increased dryness, equipment does not rust as quickly</p><p>and organic material decomposes slowly. The dry air also</p><p>requires that you increase your consumption of water. That’s</p><p>because reduced water vapor in the air causes an increase in</p><p>evaporation of moisture from the skin as well as a loss of</p><p>water through transpiration in the respiratory system. Cold air</p><p>tends to subconsciously discourage people from drinking</p><p>enough liquids; always keep this in mind, and make a</p><p>conscious effort to increase your fluid intake.</p><p>Pressure is low in mountainous areas because of the altitude.</p><p>The barometer usually drops 2 ½ centimeters for every</p><p>thousand feet gained in elevation (three percent).</p><p>The sun’s rays are absorbed or reflected in part by the</p><p>molecular content of the atmosphere. Rays are reflected at a</p><p>greater rate at lower altitudes. At higher altitudes, the thinner,</p><p>drier air has a reduced molecular content and, consequently,</p><p>doesn’t filter the sun’s rays nearly as much.</p><p>As such, the intensity of both visible and ultraviolet rays is</p><p>greater with increased altitude. These conditions increase the</p><p>chance of sunburn, especially when combined with a snow</p><p>cover that reflects the rays upward.</p><p>496</p><p>Weather Characteristics</p><p>The earth is surrounded by an atmosphere that’s divided into</p><p>layers. The world’s weather systems occur in the lowest of</p><p>these layers, the “troposphere,” which reaches as high as</p><p>40,000 feet. Weather is produced by several factors: the</p><p>atmosphere, oceans, land masses, unequal heating and cooling</p><p>from the sun, and the earth’s rotation. The weather found in</p><p>any one location depends on factors such as the air</p><p>temperature, humidity (moisture content), air pressure</p><p>(barometric pressure), how that air is being moved, and if it is</p><p>being lifted or not.</p><p>Air pressure is defined as the “weight” of the atmosphere at</p><p>any given place. The higher the pressure, the better the</p><p>weather will be. Conversely, the lower the air pressure, the</p><p>more likely the weather will be problematic. The average air</p><p>pressure at sea level is 29.92 inches of mercury (hg) or 1,013</p><p>millibars (mb). The higher the altitude, the lower the pressure.</p><p>497</p><p>Barometer</p><p>High Pressure: The characteristics of a high-pressure area are</p><p>as follow:</p><p>• The airflow is clockwise and out, otherwise known as an</p><p>“anticyclone.”</p><p>• Is associated with clear skies.</p><p>• Generally the winds will be mild.</p><p>498</p><p>• Depicted as a blue “H” on most weather maps.</p><p>Low Pressure: The characteristics of a low-pressure area are</p><p>as follow:</p><p>• The air flows counterclockwise and in, otherwise known</p><p>as a “cyclone.”</p><p>• Is associated with bad weather.</p><p>• Depicted as a red “L” on most weather maps.</p><p>Air from a high-pressure area is trying to flow out and</p><p>equalize its pressure with the surrounding air. Low pressure,</p><p>on the other hand, builds up vertically by pulling air in from</p><p>outside itself, which causes atmospheric instability, resulting</p><p>in bad weather.</p><p>On a weather map, these differences in pressure are depicted</p><p>as isobars, which resemble contour lines and are measured in</p><p>either millibars or inches of mercury. Areas of high pressure</p><p>are called “ridges” and lows are called “troughs.”</p><p>Wind</p><p>The ridges and passes found in high mountains are seldom</p><p>calm. Inversely, strong winds in protected valleys are rare.</p><p>Normally, wind speed increases with altitude since the earth’s</p><p>frictional drag is strongest near the ground. This effect is</p><p>intensified by mountainous terrain because winds accelerate</p><p>when they converge through mountain passes and canyons.</p><p>This funneling effect can cause the wind to blast with great</p><p>499</p><p>intensity on an exposed mountainside or summit. Usually, the</p><p>local wind direction is controlled by topography.</p><p>The force of wind quadruples each time wind speed doubles.</p><p>So a wind that blows at forty knots pushes four times harder</p><p>than a wind blowing at twenty knots. As wind strength</p><p>increases, gusts become more important and may be fifty</p><p>percent higher than the average wind speed. When wind</p><p>strength increases to a hurricane force of sixty-four knots or</p><p>more, you should lay on the ground during gusts to avoid</p><p>injury and continue moving during lulls. If a hurricane-force</p><p>wind blows where there is sand or snow, dense clouds will fill</p><p>the air. Rocky debris or chunks of snow crust will be hurled</p><p>near the surface. In winter, or at high altitudes, you need to be</p><p>constantly aware of the wind-chill factor and associated</p><p>cold-weather injuries (see chapter 4).</p><p>500</p><p>Weather map</p><p>Winds are the result of the uneven heating of the air by the</p><p>sun and rotation of the earth. Much of the world’s weather</p><p>depends on a system of winds that blow in a set direction.</p><p>Above hot surfaces, air expands and moves to colder areas</p><p>where it cools, becomes denser, and sinks to the earth’s</p><p>surface. The results are a circulation of air from the poles</p><p>501</p><p>along the surface of the earth to the equator, where air rises</p><p>and moves to the poles again.</p><p>This heating and cooling dynamic, coupled with the rotation</p><p>of the earth, causes surface winds. In the Northern</p><p>Hemisphere, the three prevailing winds are:</p><p>1. Polar Easterlies—winds from the polar region moving from</p><p>the east. This is air that has cooled and settled at the poles.</p><p>2. Prevailing Westerlies—winds that originate from the west.</p><p>This is where prematurely cooled air, due to the earth’s</p><p>rotation, settles to the surface.</p><p>3. Northeast Tradewinds—winds that originate from the north</p><p>and/or from the northeast.</p><p>The jet stream is a long, meandering current of high-speed</p><p>wind often exceeding 250 knots that flows in the transition</p><p>zone between the troposphere and the stratosphere—known</p><p>as the tropopause. These winds generally blow from a</p><p>westerly direction, and dip down and pick up air masses from</p><p>the tropical regions, then move north and pull air down from</p><p>the polar regions.</p><p>Air, which makes up wind and moves in parcels is called “air</p><p>masses.” These air masses can vary from the size of a small</p><p>town to as large as a country. They’re named according to</p><p>their area of origin:</p><p>1. Maritime—over water.</p><p>2. Continental—over land.</p><p>502</p><p>3. Polar—north of sixty degrees north latitude.</p><p>4. Tropical—south of sixty degrees north latitude.</p><p>When you combine these parcels of air with their</p><p>descriptions, you get the four types of air masses:</p><p>1. Continental Polar—a cold, dry air mass.</p><p>2. Maritime Polar—a cold, wet air mass.</p><p>3. Maritime Tropical—a warm, wet air mass.</p><p>4. Continental Tropical—a warm, dry air mass.</p><p>Two types of winds are found in mountain environments.</p><p>1. Anabatic Winds (valley winds)—These are winds that</p><p>blow up mountain valleys to replace rising warm air. They’re</p><p>usually light.</p><p>2. Katabatic Winds (mountain winds)—Winds that blow</p><p>down mountain</p><p>valley slopes caused by the cooling of air.</p><p>They can be strong.</p><p>Humidity</p><p>Humidity is defined as the amount of moisture in the air. All</p><p>air holds water vapor even when it can’t be seen. But air can</p><p>hold only a limited amount of vapor. The warmer the air, the</p><p>more moisture it can hold. When a body of air reaches its</p><p>capacity to hold moisture, that air is “saturated” or has 100</p><p>percent relative humidity.</p><p>503</p><p>When air is cooled beyond its saturation point, it releases the</p><p>moisture it’s holding in the form of clouds, fog, dew, rain,</p><p>snow, and so on. The temperature at which this happens is</p><p>called the “condensation point.” The condensation point</p><p>varies depending on the amount of water vapor in the air and</p><p>the temperature of that air. If a body of air contains a great</p><p>deal of water, condensation can occur at sixty-eight degrees</p><p>Fahrenheit, but if the air is dry and does not hold much</p><p>moisture, condensation may not form until the temperature</p><p>drops to thirty-two degrees or below.</p><p>Frontal lifting</p><p>504</p><p>505</p><p>Convective lifting: Altocumulus. Mid-level layered heap</p><p>cloud with many convective cells. These clouds are a result</p><p>of slow lifting that is common ahead of an advancing cold</p><p>front. The thinner regions between the cells correspond to</p><p>sinking air with the thick regions to rising air.</p><p>The adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which air cools as it rises</p><p>or warms as it descends. This rate varies depending on the</p><p>moisture content of the air. Saturated (moist) air will warm</p><p>and cool approximately 3.2 degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000 feet</p><p>of elevation. Dry air will warm and cool approximately 5.5</p><p>degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000 feet of elevation gained or lost.</p><p>Cloud Formation</p><p>Clouds are excellent indicators of prevailing weather</p><p>conditions. Their shapes and patterns can be used to forecast</p><p>weather with little need for additional equipment such as a</p><p>barometer, wind meter, and thermometer. When air is lifted or</p><p>cooled beyond its saturation point (100 percent relative</p><p>humidity), clouds form. There are four ways that air is lifted</p><p>and cooled beyond its saturation point. They are:</p><p>506</p><p>Cyclonic lifting</p><p>1.Convective Lifting—This occurs when the sun’s heat</p><p>radiating off the earth’s surface causes air currents (thermals)</p><p>to rise straight up and lift air to a point of saturation.</p><p>2. Frontal Lifting—A front is formed when two air masses of</p><p>differing moisture content and temperatures collide. Since air</p><p>masses will not mix, warmer air is forced aloft over the colder</p><p>507</p><p>air mass. There it’s cooled and can reach its saturation point.</p><p>Frontal lifting creates the majority of precipitation.</p><p>Orographic lifting</p><p>508</p><p>Nimbostratus clouds</p><p>509</p><p>Stratus clouds</p><p>510</p><p>Cumulus clouds</p><p>511</p><p>512</p><p>Stratocumulus clouds</p><p>513</p><p>Cloud chart</p><p>3. Cyclonic Lifting—An area of low pressure pulls air into its</p><p>center in a counterclockwise direction. Once this outside air</p><p>reaches the center of the low pressure, it has nowhere to go</p><p>but up. The air continues to lift until it reaches the saturation</p><p>point.</p><p>4. Orographic Lifting—This occurs when an air mass is</p><p>pushed up and over a block of higher ground such as a</p><p>mountain. Air is cooled due to the adiabatic lapse rate until</p><p>the air’s saturation point is reached.</p><p>Types of Clouds</p><p>Clouds are signposts of the weather. They can be classified by</p><p>height or appearance, or even by the amount of area covered</p><p>514</p><p>vertically or horizontally. Clouds fall into five categories:</p><p>low-, mid-, and high-level clouds; vertically developed</p><p>clouds; and less common clouds.</p><p>Low-Level Clouds</p><p>Low-level clouds (0 to 6,500 feet) are either cumulus or</p><p>stratus. Low-level clouds are mostly composed of water</p><p>droplets since their bases lie below 6,500 feet. When</p><p>temperatures are cold enough, these clouds may also contain</p><p>ice particles and snow.</p><p>Precipitating low-level clouds are either nimbostratus or</p><p>stratocumulus Nimbostratus clouds are dark, low-level clouds</p><p>accompanied by light to moderate precipitation. They block</p><p>visibility of the sun or moon, which distinguishes them from</p><p>mid-level altostratus clouds. Because of the fog and falling</p><p>precipitation commonly found beneath and around</p><p>nimbostratus clouds, the cloud base is typically extremely</p><p>diffuse and difficult to accurately define.</p><p>Stratocumulus clouds generally appear as a low, lumpy layer</p><p>of clouds that is sometimes accompanied by weak</p><p>precipitation. Stratocumulus vary in color from dark gray to</p><p>light gray and may appear as rounded masses with breaks of</p><p>clear sky in between.</p><p>Low-level clouds can be identified by their height above</p><p>nearby surrounding relief of known elevation. Most</p><p>precipitation originates from low-level clouds, because rain or</p><p>snow from higher clouds usually evaporates before it reaches</p><p>the ground. Low-level clouds usually indicate impending</p><p>precipitation, especially if the cloud is more than 3,000 feet</p><p>515</p><p>thick. Clouds that appear dark at their bases are more than</p><p>3,000 feet thick.</p><p>Mid-Level Clouds</p><p>Mid-level clouds (between 6,500 to 20,000 feet) are identified</p><p>by the prefix “alto.” Because of their elevated height, middle</p><p>clouds appear less distinct than low clouds. Alto clouds with</p><p>sharp edges are warmer because they are composed mainly of</p><p>water droplets. Cold clouds, composed mainly of ice crystals</p><p>and usually colder than minus 30 degrees F, have distinct</p><p>edges that grade gradually into the surrounding sky. Middle</p><p>clouds usually indicate fair weather, especially if they rise</p><p>over time. Middle clouds that are descending indicate</p><p>potential storms, though they are usually hours away. There</p><p>are two types of mid-level clouds, altocumulus and altostratus</p><p>clouds.</p><p>Altocumulus clouds can appear as parallel bands or rounded</p><p>masses. Typically a portion of an altocumulus cloud is</p><p>shaded, a characteristic that distinguishes it from a high-level</p><p>cirrocumulus. Altocumulus clouds usually form in advance of</p><p>a cold front. The presence of altocumulus clouds on a warm</p><p>humid summer morning suggests that thunderstorms are</p><p>likely to form later in the day. Altocumulus clouds that are</p><p>scattered rather than even in a blue sky are called “fair</p><p>weather” cumulus and indicate the arrival of high pressure</p><p>and clear skies.</p><p>Altostratus clouds are often confused with cirrostratus. The</p><p>one distinguishing feature is that a halo is not observed</p><p>around the sun or moon. With altostratus, the sun or moon is</p><p>516</p><p>only vaguely visible and appears as if it were shining through</p><p>frosted glass.</p><p>Altocumulus clouds</p><p>517</p><p>Altostratus clouds</p><p>518</p><p>Cirrus clouds</p><p>519</p><p>Cirrostratus</p><p>High-Level Clouds</p><p>High-level clouds (more than 20,000 feet above ground level)</p><p>are usually frozen, indicating air temperatures below minus</p><p>thirty degrees Fahrenheit, with a fibrous structure and blurred</p><p>outlines. The sky is often covered with a thin veil of cirrus</p><p>that partly obscures the sun or, at night, produces a ring of</p><p>light around the moon. The arrival of cirrus indicates moisture</p><p>aloft and the approach of a traveling storm system—which</p><p>means that precipitation is often twenty-four to thirty-six</p><p>520</p><p>hours away. As the storm approaches, the cirrus thickens and</p><p>lowers, becoming altostratus and eventually stratus.</p><p>Temperatures are warm, humidity rises, and winds become</p><p>southerly or southeasterly. The two types of high-level clouds</p><p>are cirrus and cirrostratus.</p><p>Cirrus clouds, typically found at altitudes greater than 20,000</p><p>feet, are the most common high-level clouds. They’re</p><p>composed of ice crystals that form when supercooled water</p><p>droplets freeze. Cirrus clouds generally occur in fair weather</p><p>and point in the direction of air movement at their elevation.</p><p>They can form a variety of shapes and sizes from nearly</p><p>straight to comma-like to all tangled together. Extensive</p><p>cirrus clouds indicate an approaching warm front.</p><p>Cirrostratus clouds are sheet-like, high-level clouds composed</p><p>of ice crystals. They’re relatively transparent, can cover the</p><p>entire sky, and be up to several thousand feet thick. The sun</p><p>or moon can be seen through cirrostratus. Sometimes the only</p><p>indication</p><p>of cirrostratus clouds is a halo around the sun or</p><p>moon. Cirrostratus clouds tend to thicken as a warm front</p><p>approaches, signifying an increased production of ice crystals.</p><p>As a result, the halo gradually disappears and the sun or moon</p><p>becomes less visible.</p><p>Vertical-Development Clouds</p><p>Clouds with vertical development can grow to heights in</p><p>excess of 39,000 feet and release incredible amounts of</p><p>energy. The two types of clouds with vertical development</p><p>are fair-weather cumulus and cumulonimbus.</p><p>521</p><p>Fair-weather cumulus clouds have the appearance of floating</p><p>cotton balls and have a lifespan of five to forty minutes.</p><p>Known for their flat bases and distinct outlines, fair-weather</p><p>cumulus exhibit only slight vertical growth, with the cloud</p><p>tops designating the limit of the rising air. Given suitable</p><p>conditions, however, these clouds can develop into towering</p><p>cumulonimbus clouds associated with powerful</p><p>thunderstorms. Fair-weather cumulus clouds are fueled by</p><p>bubbles of buoyant air known as “thermals” that rise from the</p><p>earth’s surface. As the air ascends, the water vapor contained</p><p>with it cools and condenses forming droplets.</p><p>Young fair-weather cumulus clouds have sharply defined</p><p>edges and bases while the edges of older clouds appear more</p><p>ragged because of erosion. Evaporation along the cloud edges</p><p>cools the surrounding air, making it heavier and producing a</p><p>sinking motion outside the cloud. This down-ward motion</p><p>inhibits further convection and growth of additional thermals</p><p>from below, which is why fair-weather cumulus typically</p><p>have expanses of clear sky between them. Without a</p><p>continued supply of rising air, the cloud begins to erode and</p><p>eventually disappears.</p><p>Cumulonimbus clouds are much larger and more vertically</p><p>developed than fair-weather cumulus. They can exist as</p><p>individual towers or form a line of towers called a squall line.</p><p>Fueled by vigorous convective updrafts, the tops of</p><p>cumulonimbus clouds can reach 39,000 feet or higher. Lower</p><p>levels of cumulonimbus clouds consist mostly of water</p><p>droplets. At higher elevations, where the temperatures are</p><p>well below freezing, ice crystals dominate the composition.</p><p>Under favorable conditions, harmless fair-weather cumulus</p><p>clouds can quickly develop into large cumulonimbus</p><p>522</p><p>associated with powerful thunderstorms known as supercells.</p><p>Supercells are large thunderstorms with deep rotating updrafts</p><p>and can have a lifetime of several hours. Supercells produce</p><p>frequent lightning, large hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes.</p><p>These storms tend to develop during the afternoon and early</p><p>evening when the effects of the sun’s heat are strongest.</p><p>Other Cloud Types</p><p>Clouds that don’t fit into the previous four groups include</p><p>orographic clouds, lenticulars, and contrails.</p><p>Orographic clouds develop when air is forced upward by the</p><p>earth’s topography. When stable air encounters a mountain,</p><p>it’s lifted upward and cools. If that air cools to its saturation</p><p>temperature during this process, the water vapor within</p><p>condenses and becomes visible as a cloud. Upon reaching the</p><p>mountaintop, this heavy air will sink down the other side,</p><p>warming as it descends. Once the air returns to its original</p><p>height, it has the same buoyancy as the surrounding air.</p><p>However, the air does not stop immediately because it still</p><p>has momentum carrying it downward. With continued</p><p>descent, the air becomes warmer, causing the surrounding air</p><p>to accelerate back upwards towards its original height,</p><p>creating lenticular clouds.</p><p>Lenticular clouds are cloud caps that often form above</p><p>pinnacles and peaks, and usually indicate higher winds aloft.</p><p>Cloud caps with a shape similar to a flying saucer indicate</p><p>extremely high winds (more than forty knots). Lenticulars</p><p>should always be watched with caution. If they grow and</p><p>descend, expect bad weather.</p><p>523</p><p>Contrails are clouds that are formed by water vapor being</p><p>inserted into the upper atmosphere by the exhaust of jet</p><p>engines. Contrails evaporate rapidly in fair weather. If it takes</p><p>longer than two hours for contrails to evaporate, that indicates</p><p>impending bad weather (usually about twenty-four hours</p><p>prior to a front).</p><p>Orographic clouds</p><p>524</p><p>Lenticulars</p><p>525</p><p>Contrails</p><p>526</p><p>Lightning</p><p>Cloud Interpretation</p><p>Cloud cover always appears greater on or near the horizon,</p><p>especially if the sky is covered with cumulus clouds, since the</p><p>observer is looking more at the sides of the clouds rather than</p><p>between them. Cloud cover estimates should be restricted to</p><p>527</p><p>sky areas more than forty degrees above the horizon— in</p><p>other words, to the local sky.</p><p>Fronts</p><p>Fronts occur when two air masses of differing moisture</p><p>content and temperature meet. One indicator of an</p><p>approaching front is the progression of the clouds. There are</p><p>four types of fronts: warm, cold, occluded, and stationary.</p><p>A warm front occurs when warm air moves into and over a</p><p>slower or stationary cold air mass. Because warm air is less</p><p>dense, it will rise up and over the cooler air. The cloud types</p><p>seen when a warm front approaches are cirrus, cirrostratus,</p><p>nimbostratus (producing rain), and fog. Occasionally,</p><p>cumulonimbus clouds will be seen during the summer</p><p>months.</p><p>A cold front occurs when a cold air mass overtakes a slower</p><p>or stationary warm air mass. Cold air, because it’s denser,</p><p>forces the warm air up. Clouds observed include cirrus,</p><p>cumulus, and then cumulonimbus producing a short period of</p><p>showers.</p><p>Cold fronts generally move faster than warm fronts. When</p><p>they over-take a warm front, warm air is progressively lifted</p><p>from the surface. Typically the cloud progression will be</p><p>cirrus, cirrostratus, altostratus, and nimbostratus. Precipitation</p><p>can be from light to heavy.</p><p>A stationary front is a zone with no significant air movement.</p><p>When a warm or cold front stops moving, it becomes a</p><p>stationary front. Once this boundary starts moving forward, it</p><p>528</p><p>becomes either a warm or cold front. When crossing from one</p><p>side of a stationary front to the other, one will typically</p><p>experience a noticeable change in temperature and shift in</p><p>wind direction. Weather is usually clear to partly cloudy</p><p>along a stationary front.</p><p>Temperature</p><p>Normally, the temperature drops three to five degrees</p><p>Fahrenheit for every 1,000 feet gain in altitude when the air is</p><p>motionless. But when air is moving up a mountain</p><p>accompanied by condensation (clouds, fog, or precipitation),</p><p>the temperature of the air will drop 3.2 degrees Fahrenheit for</p><p>every 1,000 feet of elevation. If air is moving up a mountain</p><p>and no clouds are forming, the temperature of the air will</p><p>drop 5.5 degrees Fahrenheit for every 1,000 feet of elevation.</p><p>On cold, clear, calm mornings, air temperatures will</p><p>sometimes rise as you climb. This phenomenon is called</p><p>temperature inversion. Temperature inversions are caused</p><p>when mountain air is cooled by ice, snow, and the heat loss of</p><p>thermal radiation. Cooler, denser air settles into the valleys</p><p>and low areas. The inversion continues until the sun warms</p><p>the surface of the earth or a moderate wind causes a mixing of</p><p>the warm and cold layers. Temperature inversions are</p><p>common in the mountainous regions of the arctic, subarctic,</p><p>and mid-latitudes.</p><p>At high altitudes, solar heating creates the greatest contrasts</p><p>in temperature. Since the altitude becomes thinner the higher</p><p>you go, more direct heat is received than at lower levels,</p><p>where solar radiation is absorbed and reflected by dust and</p><p>water vapor. Differences of forty to fifty degrees Fahrenheit</p><p>529</p><p>can occur between surface temperatures in the shade and</p><p>surface temperatures in the sun. At sea level this variance is</p><p>normally seven degrees Fahrenheit. Therefore, at high</p><p>elevations special care should be taken to avoid sunburn and</p><p>snow blindness. The clear air at high altitudes also favors</p><p>rapid cooling at night. Much of the chilled air drains</p><p>downward due to convection currents so that the differences</p><p>between day and night temperatures are greater in valleys</p><p>than on slopes.</p><p>Air is cooled on the windward side of the mountain as it gains</p><p>altitude.</p><p>This cooling effect (3.2 degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000</p><p>feet) occurs more slowly if clouds form due to heat release</p><p>when water vapor becomes liquid. On the leeward side of the</p><p>mountain, this heat gained from the condensation on the</p><p>windward side combines with the normal heating that occurs</p><p>as the air descends and air pressure increases. Therefore, air</p><p>and winds on the leeward slope are considerably warmer than</p><p>on the windward slope. It’s important to consider these</p><p>heating and cooling patterns when planning for mountain</p><p>travel.</p><p>Heat Index Charts</p><p>The heat index combines air temperature and relative</p><p>humidity in an attempt to determine the human-perceived</p><p>equivalent temperature—how hot it feels, termed the “felt” air</p><p>temperature.</p><p>To use the heat index charts, find the appropriate temperature</p><p>at the top of the chart. Read down until you are opposite the</p><p>humidity/dew point. The number which appears at the</p><p>530</p><p>intersection of the temperature and humidity/dew point is the</p><p>heat index.</p><p>Source: Meteorology for Scientists and Engineers, 2nd edition</p><p>by Roland B. Stull</p><p>Weather Forecasting</p><p>Portable aneroid barometers, thermometers, wind meters, and</p><p>hygrometers are useful in making local weather forecasts.</p><p>Reports from any weather service, including USAF, USN, or</p><p>the National Weather Bureau, are also helpful. But weather</p><p>reports should be used in conjunction with the locally</p><p>observable current condition to forecast future weather.</p><p>Remember that weather at various elevations may be quite</p><p>different due to cloud height, temperature, and barometric</p><p>pressure. Rainy overcast conditions may occur in a lower</p><p>area, while warmer, clear weather affects the mountains.</p><p>531</p><p>The method a forecaster chooses will depend upon the</p><p>forecaster’s experience, the amount of data available, and the</p><p>level of difficulty that the forecast situation presents.</p><p>The five methods of forecasting weather are:</p><p>1. Persistence Method. The simplest way of predicting the</p><p>weather assumes that “today equals tomorrow.” If today was</p><p>hot and dry, the persistence method predicts that tomorrow</p><p>will be the same.</p><p>2. Trends Method. “Nowcasting” involves determining the</p><p>speed and direction of fronts, high-and low-pressure centers,</p><p>and clouds and precipitation. For example, if a cold front</p><p>moves 300 miles during a twenty-four-hour period, we can</p><p>predict that it will travel 300 miles in another twenty-four</p><p>hours.</p><p>532</p><p>Combined air velocity and air temperature meter,</p><p>thermal anemometer. The telescope probe has a</p><p>maximum length of 101 cm, suitable for measurements at</p><p>difficult to reach locations.</p><p>3. Climatology Method. This method averages weather</p><p>statistics accumulated over many years. This only works</p><p>effectively when weather patterns are similar from one year to</p><p>the next.</p><p>4. Analog Method. This method examines a particular day’s</p><p>forecast and recalls a day in the past when the weather looked</p><p>similar. This method is problematic because finding a perfect</p><p>analogy is difficult.</p><p>5. Numerical Weather Prediction. This method uses</p><p>computers to analyze all weather conditions and is the most</p><p>accurate of the five methods.</p><p>Recording Data</p><p>An accurate observation is essential in noting trends in</p><p>weather patterns. A minor shift in the winds may signal an</p><p>approaching storm. Establish wind direction as a magnetic</p><p>direction from which the wind is blowing. Measure wind</p><p>speed in knots. Use the chart below to determine how fast the</p><p>wind is blowing.</p><p>Speed</p><p>(kph) Effects of Wind</p><p>533</p><p>0-1 Calm. No wind; smoke rises straight up.</p><p>1-3 Light Air. Smoke moves sideways a little.</p><p>4-7 Light Breeze. Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; wind</p><p>vanes move.</p><p>8-12 Gentle Breeze. Leaves and twigs in constant motion;</p><p>wind moves</p><p>small flags.</p><p>13-18 Moderate Breeze. Wind raises dust and loose paper;</p><p>small branches</p><p>move.</p><p>19-24 Fresh Breeze. Small trees begin to sway; very small</p><p>waves on lakes.</p><p>25-31 Strong Breeze. Large branches in motion; telephone</p><p>wires whis-</p><p>tling.</p><p>534</p><p>32-38 Moderate Gale. Whole trees are in motion; hard to</p><p>walk against</p><p>wind.</p><p>39-46 Fresh Gale. Wind breaks twigs off trees; cannot walk</p><p>in wind.</p><p>47-54 Strong Gale. Wind damages some houses; awnings</p><p>blown away.</p><p>55-63 Whole Gale. Rarely experienced; trees uprooted; major</p><p>damage to</p><p>homes.</p><p>64-72 Storm. Lots of damage.</p><p>73+ Hurricane. Very rare; lots of damage.</p><p>If an anemometer is available, assess speed to the nearest</p><p>knot. If no anemometer is available, estimate wind speed</p><p>according to the way objects such as trees, bushes, and tents</p><p>are affected.</p><p>Observe the farthest visible major terrain or man-made</p><p>feature and determine the distance using any available map.</p><p>535</p><p>Include any precipitation or obscuring weather. The following</p><p>are examples of present weather:</p><p>• Rain—continuous and steady precipitation that lasts at</p><p>least one hour.</p><p>• Rain showers—short-term and potentially heavy</p><p>downpours that rarely last more than one hour. •</p><p>Snow—continuous and steady frozen precipitation that lasts</p><p>at least one hour.</p><p>• Snow showers—short-term and potentially heavy frozen</p><p>downpours that rarely last more than one hour.</p><p>• Fog, haze—obstructs visibility of ground objects.</p><p>• Thunderstorms—potentially dangerous storms.</p><p>Thunderstorms will produce lightning, heavy downpours,</p><p>colder temperatures, tornadoes, hail, and strong gusty winds</p><p>at the surface and aloft. Winds commonly exceed thirty-five</p><p>knots.</p><p>Measure total cloud cover in eighths. Divide the sky into</p><p>eight different sections measuring from horizon to horizon.</p><p>Count the sections with cloud cover and record the total cloud</p><p>cover in eighths. (For example, if half of the sections are</p><p>covered with clouds, total cloud cover is 4/8.) Estimate where</p><p>the cloud base intersects elevated terrain. If clouds aren’t</p><p>touching terrain, then estimate to the best of your ability.</p><p>Assess temperature with or without a thermometer. With a</p><p>thermometer, if measurement in temperature is in degrees</p><p>Celsius, you can convert Fahrenheit to Celsius: C = F minus</p><p>536</p><p>32 times 0.55. To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit: F = 1.8 times</p><p>C plus 32.</p><p>Example: 41 degrees F-32 x .55 = 5 degrees C</p><p>5 degrees C x 1.8 + 32 = 41 degrees F</p><p>Without a thermometer, estimate temperature as above or</p><p>below freezing (0°C), and as close to the actual temperature</p><p>as possible.</p><p>With a barometer or altimeter, measure pressure trend. A high</p><p>pressure moving in will cause altimeters to indicate lower</p><p>elevation. A low pressure moving in will cause altimeters to</p><p>indicate higher elevation.</p><p>Note changes or trends in weather conditions.</p><p>Deteriorating trends include:</p><p>• Marked shifts in wind direction</p><p>• Marked wind speed increases</p><p>• Changes in obstructions to visibility</p><p>• Increasing cloud coverage</p><p>• Increased precipitation</p><p>• Lowering cloud ceilings</p><p>• Marked cooler temperature changes, which could indicate</p><p>that a cold front is passing through</p><p>537</p><p>• Marked increase in humidity</p><p>• Decreasing barometric pressure, which indicates a lower</p><p>pressure system is moving through the area</p><p>Improving trends include:</p><p>• Steady wind direction, which indicates no change in</p><p>weather systems in the area</p><p>• Decreasing wind speeds</p><p>• Clearing of obstructions to visibility</p><p>• Decreasing or ending precipitation</p><p>• Decreasing cloud coverage</p><p>• Increasing height of cloud ceilings</p><p>• Temperature changes slowly warmer</p><p>• Humidity decreases</p><p>• Increasing barometric pressure</p><p>538</p><p>WEATHER</p><p>539</p><p>12</p><p>“Not until we are lost do we understand ourselves.”</p><p>—Henry Thoreau</p><p>540</p><p>Mt. Laguna, Calif—Students from Basic Underwater</p><p>Demolition/SEAL (BUD/S) class 284 participate in a land</p><p>navigation training exercise. Land navigation familiarizes</p><p>students with map and compass navigation in the third</p><p>and final phase of BUD/S training.</p><p>A Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE)</p><p>instructor from the Center For Security Forces teaches</p><p>students to identify which direction to travel using a map</p><p>and compass during the land navigation training at a</p><p>training site in Warner Springs, Calif.</p><p>541</p><p>Whether you’re a SEAL on a mission or just trekking through</p><p>a form of</p><p>psychological conditioning: the more shocks to your system,</p><p>the more you’re able to withstand.</p><p>While soldiers are frightened and worn down with sleep</p><p>deprivation and lack of food, they’re also interrogating them</p><p>using enemy techniques used during World War II, Korea,</p><p>and Vietnam. The sessions are known to be extremely tough.</p><p>For Morgan, POW school was the perfect place to study</p><p>survival under acute stress. Even though the soldiers</p><p>understood that they were in training, and, therefore, not in</p><p>48</p><p>serious danger, Morgan’s findings were revealing. During</p><p>mock interrogations, prisoners’ heart rates skyrocketed to</p><p>more than 170 beats per minute for more than half an hour,</p><p>even though they weren’t engaged in any physical activity.</p><p>Meanwhile, their bodies pumped more stress hormones than</p><p>the amounts measured in aviators landing on aircraft carriers,</p><p>troops awaiting ambushes in Vietnam, skydivers taking the</p><p>plunge, or patients awaiting major surgery. The levels of</p><p>stress hormones measured were sufficient to turn off the</p><p>immune system and produce a catabolic state, in which the</p><p>body starts to break down and feed on itself.</p><p>Morgan’s research (which was the first of its kind) produced</p><p>some fascinating findings in terms of what types of soldiers</p><p>most successfully resisted the interrogators and stayed</p><p>focused. Morgan examined two different groups going</p><p>throughout this training: regular army troops and elite special</p><p>forces soldiers, who are known to be especially “stress hardy”</p><p>or cool under pressure. At the start, the two groups were</p><p>essentially the same. But once the stress began, he saw</p><p>significant differences. Specifically, the two groups released</p><p>very different amounts of a chemical in the brain called</p><p>neuropeptide Y (NPY). NPY is an amino acid produced by</p><p>our bodies that helps regulate blood pressure, appetite,</p><p>learning, and memory. It also works as a natural tranquilizer,</p><p>controlling anxiety and buffering the effects of stress</p><p>hormones like norepinephrine—also known as adrenaline. In</p><p>essence, NPY is used by the brain to block alarm and fear</p><p>responses and keep the frontal lobe working under stress.</p><p>Morgan found that special forces are superior survivors</p><p>because they produce significantly greater levels of NPY</p><p>compared with regular troops. And, twenty-four hours after</p><p>49</p><p>completing survival training, NPY levels in Special Forces</p><p>soldiers returned to normal, while those in regular soldiers</p><p>remained significantly lower.</p><p>With much more NPY in their systems, special forces soldiers</p><p>really are special. Not only are they able to remain</p><p>clearheaded under interrogation stress because of their ability</p><p>to produce massive amounts of natural antianxiety chemicals,</p><p>but they also bounce back faster once the stress is removed. In</p><p>the pressure of warfare, that’s a major advantage.</p><p>Dr. Morgan’s Findings at the Navy Diving and Salvage</p><p>Training Center</p><p>At the elite Navy Diving and Salvage Training Center in</p><p>Panama City, Florida, instructors have a quick way of</p><p>figuring out who will be capable of accomplishing extremely</p><p>dangerous underwater missions. They take young sailors (not</p><p>SEALs), tie their hands behind their backs, bind their feet,</p><p>strap a dive mask between their teeth (similar to BUD/S</p><p>training), and then throw them into the pool. The challenge is</p><p>to stay afloat and live.</p><p>“The more you struggle,” Morgan said, “the harder it is to get</p><p>air and the more tired you get. You just have to inhibit the</p><p>powerful, incredible instinct to breathe and your anxiety and</p><p>alarm.”</p><p>Most trainees quickly realize that the only way to avoid</p><p>drowning is to relax and sink to the bottom of the pool, kick</p><p>off powerfully toward the surface, gasp for a little bit of air</p><p>through clenched teeth, then fall back into the water and drop</p><p>down to the bottom again.</p><p>50</p><p>During this testing, a large number of sailors black out. They</p><p>simply don’t get enough oxygen and lose consciousness. Dr.</p><p>Morgan watched many of them sink to the bottom of the pool</p><p>before divers pulled them to the surface. Once back on the</p><p>deck, the unconscious sailors are rolled on their side. As soon</p><p>as they’re revived, an instructor shouts repeatedly: “Are you</p><p>gonna quit?”</p><p>Sailors are given thirty seconds to answer or they’re kicked</p><p>out of the program. If they say they want to keep going,</p><p>they’re given another thirty seconds to recover and then are</p><p>thrown back into the pool. It might sound sadistic, but the</p><p>Navy is simply trying to identify those who are likely to</p><p>survive the most dangerous missions. Through this grueling</p><p>test, it finds sailors who refuse to give up, who can suppress</p><p>the need to breathe, who trust that they’ll be rescued if</p><p>something goes wrong, and who are prepared to lose</p><p>consciousness—or even die.</p><p>In another arduous test, Navy divers are taken three miles off</p><p>the Gulf Coast at night and are given a target destination on</p><p>the beach. Dumped in the water, the students submerge and</p><p>are not allowed to surface until they reach their objective</p><p>(similar to BUD/S training). To make the challenge even</p><p>more stressful, a clock is running and the sailors aren’t</p><p>allowed to go deeper than twenty-five feet. Despite the tides</p><p>and currents, they’re also forbidden to swim parallel to the</p><p>beach looking for their target. The penalty for breaking any of</p><p>the rules is immediate expulsion from the course. Speed,</p><p>efficiency, and accuracy are a critical part of their grade.</p><p>51</p><p>Scuba students at the Naval Diving and Salvage Training</p><p>Center undergo confidence training in a twelve-foot pool</p><p>as part of their scuba certification course. Confidence</p><p>training is one part of the students five-week course used</p><p>to test their reaction to real-world emergency situations.</p><p>52</p><p>U.S. soldiers conduct a convoy through the snow-covered</p><p>Salang Pass in the Parwan province, Afghanistan. The</p><p>pass navigates through a winding road and tunnel</p><p>through some of the harshest terrain in Afghanistan.</p><p>Nearly two miles above sea level, the Salang Pass connects</p><p>the Parwan and Baghlan provinces and serves as one of</p><p>the routes to move cargo and supplies from the main</p><p>logistics hub at Bagram Air Field, located in eastern</p><p>Afghanistan, to Regional Command North. The Soldiers</p><p>are with the 101st Sustainment Brigade.</p><p>53</p><p>In this underwater navigation test, as in the pool exercise,</p><p>Morgan again found that brain chemistry plays a huge role.</p><p>The more NPY your body can pump into your system, the</p><p>better you will perform.</p><p>Morgan also learned that the best underwater navigators</p><p>release a lot of a natural steroid called DHEA</p><p>(dehydroepiandrosterone), which buffers the effects of the</p><p>stress hormone cortisol and helps the brain’s hippocampus</p><p>with spatial relationships and memory. Divers with the most</p><p>NPY and DHEA graduated at the top of the class. Conversely,</p><p>those with the lowest amounts performed poorly.</p><p>The Metronomic Heart</p><p>At POW camp and dive school, Morgan discovered a simple</p><p>and accurate way of predicting who will survive and perform</p><p>the best under extreme stress. You might call it the telltale</p><p>heart. It starts with something called heart-rate variability, or</p><p>HRV, the variations between beats. Healthy people have a lot</p><p>of variability in the intervals between their beats, with their</p><p>hearts speeding up and slowing down all the time.</p><p>It turns out that the best survivors have very little heart-rate</p><p>variability. They have “metronomic heartbeats.” In other</p><p>words, their hearts thump steadily, like metronomes, with</p><p>almost no variability between beats. The intervals between</p><p>beats are evenly spaced. Morgan believes that a metronomic</p><p>heartbeat is an easy way to detect good survivors and high</p><p>neuropeptide Y releasers, which makes sense biologically</p><p>because your brain stem, which controls your heartbeat, has a</p><p>high density of neuropeptide Y.</p><p>54</p><p>Morgan analyzed the heartbeats of soldiers and sailors before</p><p>they experienced major stress and found that the ones with</p><p>metronomic heartbeats performed the best in survival school</p><p>and underwater navigation testing. They also performed the</p><p>best in what’s called</p><p>the wild, it’s always important to plan a primary and a</p><p>secondary route in to and out of the area. When you plan, be</p><p>sure to plan for contingencies. Consider the fitness levels and</p><p>the condition of the people with you as well as the possible</p><p>problems you might encounter.</p><p>Route Planning</p><p>Write down the route you plan to take, broken down into</p><p>stages, and the time you expect to return. The more detailed</p><p>the better. Leave this information with a trusted person who</p><p>will be able to contact help if you do not return when planned.</p><p>Keep in mind that your speed of travel will depend of several</p><p>things:</p><p>1. Fitness level (the team can only move as fast as the slowest</p><p>person)</p><p>2. Amount of weight the team is carrying</p><p>3. Weather conditions</p><p>4. Terrain. A large group will always travel more slowly than</p><p>one or two people.</p><p>Nasmith’s Rule</p><p>W. Nasmith was a Scottish mountaineer in the late nineteenth</p><p>century who came up with a formula for estimating the time</p><p>needed to hike in the mountains that is still used today.</p><p>According to Nasmith’s Rule, you should allow one hour for</p><p>542</p><p>every five kilometers (three miles) and add thirty minutes for</p><p>every 1,000 feet (three hundred meters) you gain in height.</p><p>The rule assumes that you’re a fit, experienced climber and</p><p>doesn’t allow for rests, bad weather, or descents. Keep in</p><p>mind that steep descents can slow you down.</p><p>Escape Routes</p><p>When planning difficult climbs or treks, always plan your</p><p>escape routes—in other words, an easy way off a mountain,</p><p>out of the desert or jungle, or to nearby shelter or SAFE (safe</p><p>area for evacuation) area. Your escape route should be easy to</p><p>follow even in bad weather and should not be too steep or</p><p>difficult in case someone in your party is injured.</p><p>Survival Navigation</p><p>Stay proficient with your map and compass training. Too</p><p>many people rely solely on a GPS and don’t know how to</p><p>navigate using a map and compass. Everything mechanical</p><p>will eventually break, and being under a triple canopy in a</p><p>jungle or not being able to reach a satellite can cause you</p><p>serious problems.</p><p>Global Positioning Systems (GPS)</p><p>There’s a big difference between the GPS device you might</p><p>have mounted in your car and a handheld wilderness GPS.</p><p>Trip GPS devices are great for urban navigation, supplying</p><p>alternate routes as well as food, accommodations, and activity</p><p>options.</p><p>543</p><p>Wilderness GPSs units are portable handheld devices that go</p><p>where you go and are intended for off-road use. Portable</p><p>handheld GPS devices are designed to help users track routes</p><p>and find their way out of difficult situations not found on</p><p>standard maps. Some handhelds even include a two-way</p><p>radio. Others include removable memory cards for the easy</p><p>download of multiple destination maps.</p><p>All GPS receivers measure three things: your position, your</p><p>speed, and the current time. (More expensive receivers</p><p>sometimes include a true magnetic compass and barometric</p><p>altimeter, but these are completely separate instruments that</p><p>don’t use GPS to make their measurements.) All the other</p><p>features—things like distance, bearing, map location, and</p><p>even such vital details as sunrise and sunset or the best fishing</p><p>times—are just calculations your receiver makes from those</p><p>three measurements.</p><p>There are four basic things you should know regarding how to</p><p>travel with a GPS:</p><p>1. Know how to store your current location in GPS memory.</p><p>This is known as marking a waypoint.</p><p>2. Know how to get back to that stored location from</p><p>wherever you might be.</p><p>3. Know how to program into your GPS receiver the</p><p>coordinates of locations you want to go to. This is known as</p><p>entering a waypoint.</p><p>544</p><p>4. Know how to navigate from one stored waypoint to the</p><p>next in succession until you get to your destination. This is</p><p>known as following a route.</p><p>If you know how to do those four things, you’ll be able to get</p><p>where you want to go and return safely using a GPS.</p><p>Students in the Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape</p><p>(SERE) course plot their bearing and range to navigate en</p><p>route to a location at a training site in Warner Springs,</p><p>Calif.</p><p>545</p><p>Compass</p><p>546</p><p>Map and GPS</p><p>547</p><p>548</p><p>SPOT GPS</p><p>EPIRBs</p><p>Before you purchase a GPS, you should do some research and</p><p>learn the features and technologies of the different models.</p><p>Some such as the McMurdo Fastfind GPS Personal Location</p><p>Beacon emit an EPIRB (Emergency Position Indicating Radio</p><p>Beacon). Once activated by the user (or immersed in water</p><p>for some marine models), the beacon sends a signal to a</p><p>satellite above the earth with your specific beacon code. A</p><p>monitoring site will identify the owner and attempt to contact</p><p>the emergency numbers provided and also contact the U.S.</p><p>Coast Guard if near water, and local authorities if on land.</p><p>SPOT</p><p>Once activated, Spot Satellite GPS Messenger with GPS</p><p>tracking will acquire your exact coordinates from the GPS</p><p>network, and send that location along with a distress message</p><p>to a GEOS International Emergency Response Center every</p><p>five minutes until cancelled.</p><p>GEOS is an entire ecosystem of best-of-breed services that</p><p>encompass security, safety, and reliable communications for</p><p>those anywhere in the world. The GEOS programs are</p><p>delivered through a fusion of state-of-the-art technology with</p><p>the unparalleled experience of the very best and most</p><p>respected specialists in the fields of international, personal,</p><p>and corporate protection; communications; international</p><p>search and rescue (SAR); and worldwide emergency</p><p>response.</p><p>549</p><p>SPOT’s Emergency Response Center next notifies the</p><p>appropriate emergency responders based on your location and</p><p>personal information— which may include local police,</p><p>highway patrol, the Coast Guard, your country’s embassy or</p><p>consulate, or other emergency response or search and rescue</p><p>teams—as well as notifying your emergency contact persons</p><p>about the receipt of a distress signal.</p><p>SPOT also offers a software package that allows you to set up</p><p>your personal SPOT profile, which can be managed from a</p><p>personal computer. After registering your device, you can</p><p>configure specific alerts and send out three different types of</p><p>messages: check-in messages, help requests, and emergency/</p><p>911 alerts. Each message is sent with information to help find</p><p>your location, including your latitude and longitude, your</p><p>device number, the nearest town and how far away it is, and a</p><p>link to a Google Map with your position located on the map.</p><p>TRACMe</p><p>A third device available to the public is the TRACMe, which</p><p>is light-weight and easily activated. When activated, the</p><p>device transmits a “HELP— EMERGENCY” message every</p><p>fifteen seconds using Channel 1 of the Family Radio Service</p><p>radio frequency band (the same frequency used by</p><p>walkie-talkie radios). The effectiveness of this piece of</p><p>equipment depends on others knowing that you carry a</p><p>TRACMe and monitoring your location with an FRS radio.</p><p>Also, unlike the previous two devices where the signals are</p><p>received and retransmitted by satellite, the TRACMe issues a</p><p>line-of-site signal that is unlikely to be detected on the ground</p><p>much beyond one mile, perhaps two to three miles</p><p>ground-to-air.</p><p>550</p><p>TracMe</p><p>551</p><p>Map and Compass</p><p>Modern technology is great. But what happens if you’re in the</p><p>wilderness and you don’t have a GPS, EPIRB, SPOT, or a</p><p>TRACMe? Or if you have an electronic navigational device</p><p>and the batteries have run out, or it doesn’t work? Always</p><p>have a map and compass and remain proficient at using them</p><p>together. It is a perishable skill that must be practiced.</p><p>Man in water with GPS</p><p>552</p><p>No GPS, No Compass, No Map!</p><p>Don’t panic. Your situation calls for an innovative</p><p>approach. With a little cunning, you’ll be able to find your</p><p>way.</p><p>The first thing you’ll need is an improvised compass. This</p><p>can be done with a ferrous metal object such as a needle, pin,</p><p>nail file, razor blade, metal rod, or something similar, and a</p><p>suspension system (made with a piece of string or long hair).</p><p>Magnetize or polarize the metal by slowly stroking it in one</p><p>direction on a piece of silk or by carefully pulling it through</p><p>closequarters combat (CQC) training.</p><p>55</p><p>56</p><p>Coronado, Calif—A Special Warfare Combatant-craft</p><p>Crewman (SWCC) candidate from Crewmen</p><p>Qualification Training (CQT) Class 61 jumps into</p><p>Coronado Bay for a floatation check. CQT is a 14-week</p><p>course that teaches SWCC candidates the skills they need</p><p>as members of the Naval Special Warfare Boat Teams,</p><p>including navigation, craft maintenance and repair,</p><p>towing, anchoring, and weapons. SWCC operate and</p><p>maintain the navy’s inventory of state-of-the-art,</p><p>high-speed boats in support of special operations missions</p><p>worldwide.</p><p>Morgan analyzed soldiers’ heart rates right before they went</p><p>into mock battle—while they were suited up in combat gear,</p><p>waiting for a buzzer to ring that would send them running into</p><p>a building to “neutralize” (kill) the enemy and rescue</p><p>hostages. (They use “simunitions,” simulated ammunition)</p><p>The ones with metronomic heartbeats, Morgan concluded,</p><p>neutralized more of the enemy and shot at fewer hostages and</p><p>other non-threats.</p><p>But he also found that the metronomic effect is usually</p><p>associated with early heart disease and even sudden death.</p><p>Apparently the same body chemistry that allows people to</p><p>survive under high stress does not translate into optimal heart</p><p>health past the age of fifty. But without it, these elite forces</p><p>might never have survived that long.</p><p>57</p><p>SEAL/SERE TRAINING</p><p>58</p><p>2</p><p>“We all knew there was just one way to improve our odds for</p><p>survival: train, train, train. Sometimes, if your training is</p><p>properly intense, it will kill you. More often—much, much</p><p>more often—it will save your life.”</p><p>—Richard Marcinko, Navy SEAL</p><p>The Survival Mind-Set</p><p>Why do some people with little or no survival training</p><p>manage to prevail in life-threatening circumstances, while</p><p>others with survival training die? The answer is mental</p><p>fortitude, or the will to survive.</p><p>The key to survival is your mental attitude!</p><p>Psychology of Survival</p><p>Life-threatening situations create challenges that impact the</p><p>mind. The thoughts and emotions that result can transform a</p><p>confident, well-trained person into an indecisive, ineffective</p><p>mass of neuroses and fears.</p><p>Obviously, none of us wants to fall apart when challenged.</p><p>That’s why it’s imperative to familiarize yourself with the</p><p>specific stresses associated with survival—and learn to</p><p>understand and manage your own reactions to those stresses.</p><p>59</p><p>Stress</p><p>Whether we like it or not, stress is a condition that we’re all</p><p>familiar with. It’s basically our reaction to the pressures of</p><p>living. It can be defined as “a specific response of the body to</p><p>a stimulus (such as pain) that interferes with the normal</p><p>physiological equilibrium of an organism.”</p><p>While stress is a condition most people seek to avoid, it also</p><p>has benefits. For example, it provides a means of testing our</p><p>strengths and values. It also helps us measure and develop our</p><p>adaptability and flexibility. And, it can stimulate us to</p><p>perform at higher levels.</p><p>Since we usually don’t consider unimportant events to be</p><p>stressful, stress can also be an excellent indicator of the</p><p>significance we attach to a particular event. In other words, it</p><p>tells us what we consider important.</p><p>All of us need some stress in our lives, but too much can be</p><p>destructive. The goal, therefore, is to learn to manage stress</p><p>so that it never becomes overwhelming. Too much stress</p><p>leads to distress, which can adversely affect individuals and</p><p>organizations.</p><p>Distress causes an uncomfortable condition that we try to</p><p>escape and, preferably, avoid. Listed below are some</p><p>common indicators of stress becoming distress:</p><p>Difficulty making decisions</p><p>Angry outbursts</p><p>60</p><p>Forgetfulness</p><p>Low energy levels</p><p>Constant worrying</p><p>Propensity for mistakes</p><p>Thoughts about death or suicide</p><p>Trouble getting along with others</p><p>Withdrawing from others</p><p>Hiding from responsibilities</p><p>Carelessness</p><p>Stress can be constructive or destructive. It can encourage or</p><p>discourage, move us forward or stop us dead in our tracks. It</p><p>can fill life with added meaning or render it meaningless.</p><p>Stress can inspire us to perform at our maximum efficiency in</p><p>a survival situation. It can also cause us to panic and forget all</p><p>our training.</p><p>The key to your survival is how effectively you manage the</p><p>inevitable stresses you will encounter. The survivor will work</p><p>with his stresses instead of letting his stresses work on him.</p><p>Survival Stressors</p><p>Events—such as diving, shooting, skydiving, or being shot</p><p>at—produce stress. The events themselves are not stress, but</p><p>61</p><p>they produce it and are called “stressors.” In other words,</p><p>stressors are the cause, while stress is the response.</p><p>Once the body recognizes the presence of a stressor, it begins</p><p>to prepare to protect itself—to either “fight or flee.” First, the</p><p>brain sends a message throughout the body. The body</p><p>responds by releasing stored fuels (sugar and fats) to provide</p><p>quick energy. Breathing rate increases to supply more oxygen</p><p>to the blood. Muscle tension increases to prepare for action.</p><p>Blood clotting mechanisms are activated to reduce bleeding</p><p>from cuts. Senses become more acute (hearing becomes more</p><p>sensitive, eyes widen, sense of smell sharpens) so that you are</p><p>more aware of your surroundings. Heart rate and blood</p><p>pressure rise to provide more blood to the muscles. This</p><p>protective posture prepares you to cope with potential</p><p>dangers. But it’s impossible to maintain such a level of</p><p>alertness indefinitely.</p><p>One stressor doesn’t leave because another one has arrived.</p><p>Stressors piggyback on one another. And the cumulative</p><p>effect of minor stressors can add up to major distress,</p><p>especially when they happen simultaneously.</p><p>As the body’s resistance to stress wears down and the sources</p><p>of stress continue or increase, the body becomes exhausted.</p><p>At this point, the body loses its ability to resist stress or use it</p><p>in a positive way, and signs of distress appear.</p><p>So anticipating stressors and developing strategies to cope</p><p>with them are two important ingredients in the effective</p><p>management of stress. Therefore, it’s essential that a person</p><p>in a survival setting be aware of the types of stressors he or</p><p>she is likely to encounter.</p><p>62</p><p>Injury, Illness, or Death</p><p>In a survival setting, injury, illness, and death are potential</p><p>dangers. It can be very stressful being alone in an unfamiliar</p><p>environment and knowing that you could die from hostile</p><p>action, an accident, or from eating something lethal.</p><p>Furthermore, illness and injury can add to stress by limiting</p><p>your ability to maneuver, procure food and water, find shelter,</p><p>and defend yourself. Illness and injury also add to stress</p><p>through the pain and discomfort they generate.</p><p>It’s only by learning to control the stress associated with</p><p>one’s vulnerability to injury, illness, and death that a survivor</p><p>can muster the courage to take the risks associated with</p><p>performing survival tasks.</p><p>Uncertainty and Lack of Control</p><p>Some people have trouble operating in settings where</p><p>everything isn’t preplanned and laid out. The only guarantee</p><p>in a survival situation is that nothing is guaranteed. You’ll be</p><p>operating on limited information in a setting where you have</p><p>little or no control over your surroundings. This uncertainty</p><p>and lack of control can add to the stress of being ill, injured,</p><p>or killed.</p><p>Environment</p><p>Even under ideal circumstances, nature is an unpredictable</p><p>and potentially dangerous force. In a survival situation, you</p><p>will have to contend with the stressors of possible capture by</p><p>the enemy, extreme weather conditions, rugged terrain, and</p><p>63</p><p>the variety of creatures inhabiting a particular area. Heat,</p><p>cold, rain, winds, mountains, swamps, deserts, insects,</p><p>dangerous reptiles, and other animals are just a few of the</p><p>challenges that you might expect. Depending on how you</p><p>handle the stresses of your environment, your surroundings</p><p>can either provide a source of food, water, and protection, or</p><p>can be a cause of extreme discomfort leading to injury,</p><p>illness, or death.</p><p>Hunger and Thirst</p><p>Foraging can be another major source of stress. Without</p><p>food</p><p>and water, you will weaken and eventually die. Therefore,</p><p>securing and preserving food and water will take on increased</p><p>importance as your time in a survival setting increases.</p><p>Fatigue</p><p>Maintaining the will to survive is likely to get harder as you</p><p>grow tired. In fact, it’s possible to become so fatigued that the</p><p>act of staying awake is stressful in itself. There are distinct</p><p>advantages to facing adversity with others. The company of a</p><p>teammate(s) can provide you with a greater sense of security</p><p>and a feeling that someone is available to help if problems</p><p>occur. In many survival situations, however, one is often</p><p>called upon to rely solely on his or her own resources.</p><p>Summary</p><p>The survival stressors mentioned above are by no means the</p><p>only ones you may face. Remember, what is stressful to one</p><p>person may not bother another. Your experience, training,</p><p>attitude, physical and mental conditioning, level of</p><p>64</p><p>self-confidence, and survival mind-set will determine what</p><p>you will find stressful in a survival environment. The object is</p><p>not to avoid stress, but rather to manage the stressors of</p><p>survival and make them work for you.</p><p>Now that you are armed with a better understanding of stress</p><p>and the stressors common to survival, the next step is to</p><p>examine how you are likely to react to the stressors you may</p><p>face.</p><p>Natural Reactions</p><p>Human beings have been able to survive many major changes</p><p>in their environment throughout the centuries. Their ability to</p><p>adapt physically and mentally to a changing world has helped</p><p>them thrive, while other species have gradually died off.</p><p>The same survival mechanisms that worked for our ancestors</p><p>can help keep us alive today! Our challenge is to understand</p><p>them better and anticipate how they will affect us in situations</p><p>of acute danger.</p><p>Survival circumstances will produce psychological reactions</p><p>in the average person. Let’s examine some of the major</p><p>reactions you might experience when faced with the survival</p><p>stressors described above.</p><p>Fear</p><p>Fear is an emotional response to dangerous circumstances that</p><p>has the potential to lead to death, injury, or illness. The</p><p>anticipated harm need not be only physical. The threat to</p><p>65</p><p>one’s emotional and mental well-being can generate fear as</p><p>well.</p><p>When trying to survive, fear can have a positive function if it</p><p>encourages you to be especially cautious in situations where</p><p>recklessness could result in injury. But fear can also</p><p>immobilize you and cause you to become so frightened that</p><p>you fail to perform activities essential to your survival.</p><p>It’s perfectly normal to experience a certain degree of fear</p><p>when placed in unfamiliar surroundings under adverse</p><p>conditions. But it’s imperative that you learn not to be</p><p>overcome by these fears. Realistic training can help you</p><p>acquire the knowledge and skills needed to increase your</p><p>confidence and manage your fears.</p><p>Anxiety</p><p>Because it is natural to be afraid, it is also natural for us to</p><p>experience anxiety. Anxiety can be an uneasy, apprehensive</p><p>feeling we get when we anticipate or are faced with</p><p>dangerous situations (physical, mental, and emotional). When</p><p>used in a positive way, anxiety can motivate us to act to end,</p><p>or at least master, the dangers that threaten our existence.</p><p>Look at it this way: If we were never anxious, there would be</p><p>little motivation to make changes in our lives. The act of</p><p>reducing your anxiety brings the source of that anxiety—i.e.,</p><p>your fears—under control. When it motivates us to take</p><p>positive steps to relieve it, anxiety is helpful. But it can also</p><p>have a devastating effect, overwhelming you to the point</p><p>where you become easily confused and have difficulty</p><p>thinking clearly. Once this happens, it becomes increasingly</p><p>66</p><p>difficult to make good judgments and sound decisions.</p><p>Therefore, it’s important to learn techniques to calm anxieties</p><p>and keep them in the range where they’re helpful, not</p><p>debilitating.</p><p>Anger and Frustration</p><p>Frustration arises when a person is continually thwarted in his</p><p>or her attempts to achieve a goal. The goal of survival is to</p><p>stay alive long enough until you are able to reach help or until</p><p>help can reach you. To reach this goal, it’s necessary to</p><p>complete certain tasks with minimal resources. And it’s</p><p>inevitable that something will go wrong in trying to execute</p><p>these tasks. Something will happen that’s beyond your</p><p>control. With one’s life at stake, every mistake is magnified in</p><p>terms of its importance.</p><p>Thus, sooner or later, you will have to cope with frustration</p><p>when your plans run afoul. One byproduct of this frustration</p><p>is anger.</p><p>As you would imagine, there are many events in a survival</p><p>situation that can cause frustration or anger. Getting lost,</p><p>damaged or forgotten equipment, the weather, inhospitable</p><p>terrain, proximity to the enemy, and physical limitations are</p><p>just a few.</p><p>Frustration and anger encourage impulsive reactions,</p><p>irrational behavior, poorly thought-out decisions, and, in</p><p>some instances, an “I quit” attitude (as people will sometimes</p><p>avoid doing something they can’t master). If harnessed and</p><p>properly channeled, the emotional intensity associated with</p><p>anger and frustration can help you productively answer the</p><p>67</p><p>challenges of survival. Failure to do so can cause you to waste</p><p>energy in activities that do little to further either your chances</p><p>of survival or those of your teammates.</p><p>Depression</p><p>It takes a rare person not to feel some sadness when faced</p><p>with the privations of survival. As this sadness deepens, we</p><p>label the feeling “depression,” which is closely linked with</p><p>frustration and anger.</p><p>A person who is frustrated becomes angrier as he fails to</p><p>reach his goals. If the anger fails to push you to succeed,</p><p>frustration levels usually climb even higher, creating a</p><p>destructive cycle between anger and frustration. As the cycle</p><p>continues, one becomes increasingly worn down—physically,</p><p>emotionally, and mentally. Finally, one starts to give up as his</p><p>focus shifts from “What can I do?” to “There is nothing I can</p><p>do.”</p><p>Depression is an expression of hopelessness. There’s nothing</p><p>wrong with feeling sad as you think about your loved ones</p><p>and remember what life is like back in “civilization.” Such</p><p>thoughts, as long as they remain temporary, can spur you to</p><p>try harder and survive another day. On the other hand, if they</p><p>become obsessive, you’re likely to sink into a depressed state</p><p>that saps your energy and, more important, your will to</p><p>survive. It’s imperative to resist falling into depression.</p><p>Loneliness and Boredom</p><p>68</p><p>Man is a social animal. We human beings generally enjoy the</p><p>company of others. Very few people want to be alone all the</p><p>time!</p><p>As you are aware, many survival situations involve isolation.</p><p>This isn’t necessarily a bad thing. Because loneliness and</p><p>boredom can bring to the surface qualities you never knew</p><p>you had, You might find that your imagination and creative</p><p>abilities surprise you or that you have a hidden talent. Most</p><p>important, you may tap into a reservoir of inner strength and</p><p>fortitude you never knew you had.</p><p>Conversely, loneliness and boredom can lead to depression.</p><p>In a survival situation you must find ways to keep your mind</p><p>productively occupied and develop a degree of</p><p>self-sufficiency. You must have faith in your ability to “go it</p><p>alone.”</p><p>Survivor’s Guilt</p><p>The circumstances that have caused you to be in a survival</p><p>setting are sometimes dramatic and tragic. You might be there</p><p>because of an accident or a mission gone bad. Perhaps you</p><p>were the only or one of a few survivors. While relieved to be</p><p>alive, you might also be mourning the deaths of others who</p><p>were less fortunate.</p><p>It’s not uncommon for survivors to feel guilty about being</p><p>spared while others die. This feeling, when used positively,</p><p>has encouraged people to try harder to survive with the belief</p><p>they were allowed to live for some greater purpose. Others</p><p>have willed themselves to live so that they could carry on the</p><p>work of those killed. Whatever reasoning you employ, it’s</p><p>69</p><p>critical to never undermine your will to survive.</p><p>The</p><p>alternative will only serve to compound the original tragedy.</p><p>It’s the survivor’s imperative to survive.</p><p>Preparing Yourself</p><p>Your mission in any survival situation is to stay alive. As</p><p>discussed, you should expect to experience a whole gamut of</p><p>thoughts and emotions. These can either help you or lead to</p><p>your downfall. Fear, anxiety, anger, frustration, guilt,</p><p>depression, and loneliness are all possible reactions to the</p><p>many stresses you’re likely to encounter.</p><p>Now that you understand the psychological dynamics of</p><p>survival situations, you need to prepare yourself to deal with</p><p>them so you can further your ultimate interest, which is</p><p>staying alive with honor and dignity. Know that the</p><p>challenges of survival have produced countless examples of</p><p>heroism, courage, and self-sacrifice.</p><p>Below are some tips to help you prepare yourself mentally:</p><p>Know Yourself</p><p>Strengthen your stronger qualities and work even harder to</p><p>develop the areas where you know you’re vulnerable.</p><p>Anticipate Fears</p><p>Begin thinking about what would frighten you the most if you</p><p>were forced to survive alone. Train harder in those areas of</p><p>concern. The goal is not to eliminate the fear, but to build</p><p>confidence in your ability to function.</p><p>70</p><p>Be Realistic</p><p>Don’t be afraid to make honest appraisals. See circumstances</p><p>as they are, not as you want them to be. Keep your hopes and</p><p>expectations within the parameters of your situation.</p><p>Understand that unrealistic expectations only increase the</p><p>probability of disappointment. Follow the adage, “Hope for</p><p>the best; prepare for the worst.” It is much easier to adjust to</p><p>pleasant surprises than to cope with unexpected harsh</p><p>realities.</p><p>Maintain a Positive Attitude</p><p>See the potential good in any situation. This not only boosts</p><p>morale, it also stimulates your imagination and creativity.</p><p>Remind Yourself What Is at Stake</p><p>Failure to prepare yourself mentally for the stresses of</p><p>survival can invite depression, carelessness, inattention, loss</p><p>of confidence, poor decisionmaking, and giving up</p><p>psychologically before the body does. Your life and the lives</p><p>of your teammates may be at stake.</p><p>Train</p><p>Prepare yourself to cope with the rigors of survival. Whether</p><p>you’re engaged in military training or learning from life</p><p>experience, understand that the skills you’re acquiring will</p><p>give you strength and confidence. The more realistic the</p><p>training, the less overwhelming an actual survival setting will</p><p>be.</p><p>71</p><p>Learn Stress Management Techniques</p><p>People under high levels of stress are more likely to panic if</p><p>they’re not well-trained physically and prepared</p><p>psychologically to face life-threatening situations. While it’s</p><p>impossible to control specific survival circumstances, it is</p><p>within our ability to monitor and manage our responses to</p><p>those circumstances. Learning stress management techniques</p><p>can significantly enhance your capability of remain calm and</p><p>focused as you work to keep yourself and others alive.</p><p>Important techniques to develop include relaxation skills,</p><p>time management skills, assertiveness skills, and cognitive</p><p>restructuring skills (the ability to control how you view a</p><p>situation).</p><p>S-Size Up the Situation</p><p>72</p><p>If you are in a potential hostage situation, find a place where</p><p>you can conceal yourself from the enemy. Security takes</p><p>priority. Use your senses of hearing, smell, and sight to get a</p><p>feel for your surroundings.</p><p>Size Up Your Surroundings</p><p>Determine the pattern of the area. Get a feel for what is going</p><p>on around you. Every environment, whether forest, jungle,</p><p>arctic, desert, water, or urban, has a rhythm or pattern. This</p><p>rhythm or pattern includes animal and bird noises and</p><p>movements and insect sounds. It may also include enemy</p><p>traffic and civilian movements.</p><p>Size Up Your Physical Condition</p><p>Check any wounds you may have sustained and provide</p><p>self-aid. Give first aid to your teammates if required. Take</p><p>care to prevent further bodily harm. Stay hydrated. Dress</p><p>appropriately for the environment.</p><p>Size Up Your Equipment</p><p>Check to see what equipment you have and what condition</p><p>it’s in.</p><p>Once you’ve sized up your situation, surroundings, physical</p><p>condition, and equipment, you’re ready to make your survival</p><p>plan. In doing so, keep in mind your basic physical</p><p>needs—water, shelter, and food.</p><p>U-Use All Your Senses; Undue Haste Makes Waste</p><p>73</p><p>During combat, any quick move or reaction made without</p><p>thinking or planning can result in your capture or death. Don’t</p><p>move just for the sake of taking action. Consider all aspects of</p><p>your situation before you make a decision and a move. If you</p><p>act in haste, you may forget or lose some of your equipment</p><p>or become disoriented so that you don’t know which way to</p><p>go. Plan your moves. Be ready to move out quickly without</p><p>endangering yourself. Use all your senses to evaluate the</p><p>situation. Note sounds and smells. Be sensitive to temperature</p><p>changes. Be observant.</p><p>R-Remember Where You Are</p><p>Always know your position on the map and relate it to the</p><p>surrounding terrain. If there are other people with you, make</p><p>sure they also know their location. Pay close attention to</p><p>where you are and to where you’re going. Don’t rely on</p><p>others in the group to keep track of the route. Constantly</p><p>orient yourself. During wartime, always try to determine how</p><p>your location relates to—</p><p>The location of enemy units, hostile elements, and safe areas.</p><p>The location of friendly units.</p><p>The location of water sources.</p><p>Areas that will provide good cover and concealment.</p><p>V-Vanquish Fear and Panic</p><p>The greatest enemies in a combat survival and evasion</p><p>situation are fear and panic. If uncontrolled, they can destroy</p><p>74</p><p>your ability to make an intelligent decision. They may cause</p><p>you to react to your feelings and imagination rather than to</p><p>your situation. They can drain your energy and thereby cause</p><p>other negative emotions.</p><p>I-Improvise</p><p>In the United States, we have all types of items available for</p><p>our every need. Many of these items are cheap to replace</p><p>when damaged. Our easy-come, easy-go, easy-to-replace</p><p>culture makes it unnecessary for us to improvise much. This</p><p>inexperience in improvisation can be an enemy in a survival</p><p>situation.</p><p>Learn to use natural objects around you for different needs</p><p>(i.e., using a tree limb as a lever). No matter how complete</p><p>your survival kit may be, it will be insufficient and in time</p><p>will run out or wear out. Your imagination and ingenuity</p><p>must take over when that happens.</p><p>V-Value Living</p><p>Many of us have become creatures of comfort and dislike</p><p>inconveniences and discomforts. What happens when we’re</p><p>faced with a survival situation with its stresses,</p><p>inconveniences, and discomforts? This is when your will to</p><p>live is vital. The experience and knowledge you’ve gained</p><p>through life, training, and past experiences will have a</p><p>bearing on your will to live. Stubbornness, or a refusal to give</p><p>in to problems and obstacles, will give you the mental and</p><p>physical strength to endure.</p><p>A-Act Like the Natives</p><p>75</p><p>The natives and animals of a region have adapted to their</p><p>environment. To get a feel for the area, watch how the people</p><p>go about their daily routine. When and what do they eat?</p><p>When, where, and how do they get their food? When and</p><p>where do they go for water? What time do they usually go to</p><p>bed and get up? These actions are important to you when</p><p>you’re trying to avoid capture.</p><p>Animal life in the area can also give you clues on how to</p><p>survive. Animals require food, water, and shelter. By</p><p>watching them, you can find sources of water and food. Keep</p><p>in mind that the reaction of animals can reveal your presence</p><p>to the enemy. If in a friendly area, one way you can gain</p><p>rapport with the natives is to show interest in their tools and</p><p>how they get food and water. By studying the people, you</p><p>learn to respect them, you often make valuable friends, and,</p><p>most important, you learn how to adapt to their environment</p><p>and increase your chances of survival.</p><p>L-Live by Your Wits and Learn Survival Skills</p><p>Without the right mind-set and proper training in survival,</p><p>your chances</p><p>of living through a survival and evasion</p><p>situation are slight.</p><p>Learn these basic skills now. How you decide to equip</p><p>yourself before deployment can impact whether or not you</p><p>survive. You need to know about the environment to which</p><p>you’re going, and you must practice basic skills geared to that</p><p>environment.</p><p>Practice basic survival skills during all training programs,</p><p>exercises, and missions. Survival training reduces fear of the</p><p>76</p><p>unknown and gives you self-confidence. It teaches you to live</p><p>by your wits.</p><p>Pattern for Survival</p><p>Develop a survival pattern, one that includes water, food,</p><p>shelter, fire, signals, and first aid. For example, in a cold</p><p>environment, you’ll need a source of water, traps or snares to</p><p>get food; a shelter to protect you from the elements; fire for</p><p>warmth and cooking; a means to signal friendly aircraft; and</p><p>first aid to maintain health. If injured, first aid has top</p><p>priority no matter what climate you’re in.</p><p>Change your survival pattern to meet your immediate</p><p>physical needs as the environment changes.</p><p>Project Planning</p><p>• Develop a safety and communications plan</p><p>• Anticipate problems</p><p>• Weigh production vs. safety</p><p>• Preplan for emergencies</p><p>• Organize available resources</p><p>Wilderness Emergency Management</p><p>• Stay in control of your situation</p><p>• Analyze any immediate threats to your safety</p><p>77</p><p>• Prevent dehydration and heat or cold injuries</p><p>• Eat</p><p>• Get off your feet when possible</p><p>• Remain positive</p><p>• Try to determine the length of your survival situation and</p><p>prepare accordingly</p><p>• Protect and maintain your life</p><p>• Stay out of the elements when possible</p><p>• Seek or make a shelter</p><p>• Administer self-aid and first aid to teammates</p><p>• Protect your equipment</p><p>• Keep all equipment in your shelter</p><p>• Conserve your resources</p><p>• Do not throw anything away</p><p>• Inventory both man-made and natural materials available to</p><p>you</p><p>• Use all available signaling equipment to give your status</p><p>and location to friendly forces</p><p>• Rest when you can</p><p>78</p><p>• Stay alert</p><p>• Be patient</p><p>The Will to Survive—by Wade Chapple</p><p>One of the training venues the rescue center in Colombia</p><p>offers to embassy folks is called “High Risk of Isolation.”</p><p>Essentially, the term “isolated” means“ being separated from</p><p>your unit or organization and friendly authorities.” Anybody</p><p>working outside of major population centers in Colombia can</p><p>find themselves isolated and in need of assistance. In extreme</p><p>circumstances, persons may find themselves isolated deep in</p><p>the jungles of Colombia with their very survival totally</p><p>dependent on their ability to help themselves.</p><p>A frequent question that comes up during this training venue</p><p>is, “What is the most important key to survival when isolated</p><p>in the Amazon jungle?” My response is always quick and to</p><p>the point: the will to survive. Yes, knowing how to collect</p><p>water and make it potable is important and yes, being able to</p><p>make a fire, build shelter, and procure food are also important</p><p>to survival. However, if one does not possess a fierce desire</p><p>to survive, that person will likely perish if his/her rescue</p><p>doesn’t come quick.</p><p>This desire to survive is a form of mental toughness or</p><p>psychology that enables a person in life-threatening survival</p><p>situations to overcome the stresses that produce adverse</p><p>emotional reaction and indecision.</p><p>Managing stress, controlling emotions, understanding one’s</p><p>reaction to particular challenges, and having the ability to</p><p>79</p><p>suppress negative thoughts are all necessary traits that serve</p><p>to make one mentally tough when facing life-threatening</p><p>situations. The operator or individual who possesses these</p><p>traits will also possess the will to survive.</p><p>Resilience: Can the Will to Survive Be Learned? —by</p><p>John Bruce Jessen, Ph.D</p><p>Survival experiences span a multitude of settings. Climbers</p><p>poised for a summit assault on a high alpine peak could be</p><p>pinned down by severe weather, exhaust their supplies, and</p><p>be faced with a survival experience. A tourist traveling</p><p>through a vast desert might be accidentally left at a roadside</p><p>stop, wander off to seek help, and become lost. The</p><p>exhilaration of a pleasant afternoon sailing trip might tempt</p><p>novice sailors into waters too demanding for their abilities. A</p><p>military pilot flying a routine peace-keeping mission could be</p><p>unexpectedly shot down, forced to make a sudden and</p><p>shocking transition from a pilot secure in the cockpit to an</p><p>evader in hostile territory. This same pilot could now find</p><p>himself a captive facing exploitation and the threat of death.</p><p>Some survival experiences are entered into almost voluntarily</p><p>and some are thrust upon us. This spectrum of environmental</p><p>variables is further complicated, if not largely determined, by</p><p>the human element—the survivor.</p><p>Survivors vary with the same infinite randomness as do</p><p>survival experiences. Environmental and human variables</p><p>produce an incredible array of survival experiences. No</p><p>matter how survival experiences vary, they all appear to share</p><p>one critical element—the sense of individual loss of control.</p><p>The degree of control loss will roughly determine the</p><p>magnitude of the survivor’s perceived distress. The conditions</p><p>80</p><p>of one person’s survival experience could very well produce</p><p>merely an exciting adventure for another. An excellent</p><p>example of this is the first unsupported crossing of the</p><p>Antarctic Continent by the Pentland South Pole Expedition.</p><p>This expedition was led by Sir Ranulph Fiennes. For Sir</p><p>Ranulph, navigating the high Antarctic plateau while pulling</p><p>incredibly heavy sled loads in the extreme cold of catabolic</p><p>winds was a seriously challenging and extremely rewarding</p><p>exploration. However, if I were thrust into these same</p><p>circumstances, it would be a survival experience of</p><p>catastrophic proportions.</p><p>This comparison points to another constant in survival</p><p>experiences. Individuals define survival experiences based on</p><p>their own perceptual appraisal of the challenge they face. The</p><p>ability to predict the eventual outcome of a survival situation</p><p>is critical. It accounts for vast differences in human</p><p>perception and performance. Prior to his expedition, Sir</p><p>Ranulph read volumes of research on clothing, equipment,</p><p>climatic conditions, and accounts of previous Antarctic</p><p>explorers. He engaged in field trials which tested his</p><p>equipment and tempered his physical and psychological</p><p>strength. To that end, the majority of the peril he and his</p><p>companion encountered, though very severe, was relatively</p><p>predictable to him. Because I would never voluntarily</p><p>participate in such a terrifying effort, I would not amass the</p><p>qualitative life experiences and preparation necessary to cope</p><p>effectively. I would feel frightened and inadequate. Each new</p><p>and cruel circumstance would increase my feeling of</p><p>vulnerability and helplessness. Sir Ranulph met each new</p><p>challenge with measured optimism. His preparation and life</p><p>experiences gave him realistic self-confidence. This unique</p><p>will to persist and survive is known as resilience.</p><p>81</p><p>Sir Ranulph’s genuine and hard-won confidence produced a</p><p>healthy, optimistic approach to the challenges he faced.</p><p>Though he experienced disappointment and fear, his</p><p>optimism always won out. He was able to realistically predict</p><p>a positive outcome for these challenges. For him, survival</p><p>challenges served as cues which triggered his prepared mind</p><p>and body to react in an adaptive and ultimately successful</p><p>manner. The individual who is properly prepared enjoys a</p><p>sense of control or composure. This realistic composure</p><p>allows one to predict what will happen with a high degree of</p><p>accuracy. The self-confidence which results yields an</p><p>optimism that sustains the individual through disappointments</p><p>and difficult times. This process produces resilience.</p><p>I have often heard survival instructors tell their students that</p><p>survivors must have the “will to survive.” They emphasize</p><p>that survivors must “never give up;” that if they persist, they</p><p>can survive. There are numerous stories of successful survival</p><p>against the greatest of odds because survivors possessed the</p><p>requisite</p>